BM  615  .G7 

1906 

Greenstone , 

Julius 

H,  1873- 

1955. 

The  Messiah 

idea 

in 

Jewish 

history 

Zbc  flftessiab  Hbea  in 
3ewi8b  Ibtstor^ 


y 


BY 


JULIUS  H.  GREENSTONE,  Ph.  D. 


PHILADELPHIA 

THE  JEWISH  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA 

1906 


Copyright,   1906, 

BY 

The  Jewish  Publication  Society  of  America 


TO   THE    MEMORY 

OP 

MY    MOTHER 


PREFACE 

That  Judaism  has  dogmas,  has  been  estab- 
lished convincingly  b}^  Dr.  S.  Schechter  in 
his  admirable  essay  on  this  subject.  The 
prevailing  tendency  of  modern  Jews  to  re- 
peat, from  pulpit  and  from  platform,  the 
assertion  made  by  Mendelssohn,  that  Juda- 
ism has  no  dogmas,  is  rightly  condemned  in 
this  essay,  in  which  the  author  proves  from 
the  vast  stores  of  Jewish  lore,  that  dogma 
played  as  important  a  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Jewish  institutions  as  did  the  Law, 
that  Judaism  "  regulates  not  only  our  ac- 
tions, but  also  our  thoughts." 

And  yet  the  position  of  dogma  in  the 
Jewish  religion  is  not  the  same  as  that  which 
it  occupies  in  other  creeds.  The  Jewish 
dogmas  are  not  only  devoid  of  any  saving 
power,  not  only  has  their  exact  number  and 
relative  importance  never  been  definitely  set- 
tled, but  even  the  constructions  placed  upon 


PREFACE 


them  have  varied  from  time  to  time,  and 
they  have  frequently  contradicted  each  other. 
Fortunately  for  the  development  of  Judaism, 
though  not  for  the  historian  of  Jewish  the- 
ology, the  Jewish  principles  of  belief  have 
never  been  definitely  settled,  nor  have  their 
limits  been  definitely  described.  No  Jewish 
synods,  except  those  of  very  recent  date,  ever 
attempted  to  set  limits  to  the  dogmas  of  our 
faith,  and  even  the  thirteen  articles  of  the 
creed  of  Maimonides,  which  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  majority  of  Jews  and  incor- 
porated in  the  Prayer-Book,  were  left  in 
their  bare  outlines,  allowing  much  latitude 
for  various  schools  of  interpreters. 

The  belief  in  the  coming  of  the  Messiah, 
the  treasured  hope  of  the  Jew  throughout  all 
the  centuries  of  misery  and  persecution,  is 
regarded  by  most  Jewish  thinkers  as  a  dog- 
ma of  Judaism.  Some  of  them,  indeed, 
would  not  make  this  belief  essential  to  Juda- 
ism. They  consider  it  merely  as  a  "  branch," 
or  corollary  to  others  more  important,  but 


PREFACE  9 

almost  all  agree  that  the  belief  in  the  coming 
of  a  Messiah  is  an  important  feature  of 
Judaism.  The  nature  and  limitations  of  this 
dogma,  however,  remained  unsettled,  the 
Jewish  authorities  differing  widely  in  their 
conception  of  it,  according  to  the  intellectual 
and  material  position  of  the  people  at  their 
respective  times. 

It  is  the  object  of  the  present  volume  to 
trace  the  development  of  this  ideal  from  its 
early  origins  to  the  present  day,  to  elucidate 
the  influences  it  exerted  upon  the  lives  and 
habits  of  the  Jews,  and  to  explain  the  causes 
by  which  it,  in  turn,  was  influenced,  giving 
in  outline  the  historical  conditions  of  every 
period.  It  does  not  pretend  to  be  an  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  subject,  but  a  mere  out- 
line of  the  marvellous  development  of  this 
hope  in  the  Jewish  heart.  Less  space  has 
been  devoted  to  the  pre-Christian  period  than 
its  importance  demands,  since  that  period 
has  been  sufficiently  explored  by  many  Chris- 
tian scholars,  to  whom  I  hereby  acknowledge 


lO  PREFACE 

my  indebtedness  for  many  valuable  sugg-es- 
tions.  I  have  paid  special  attention  to  the 
Talmudic  and  Midrashic  sources,  to  the 
works  of  the  Jewish  philosophers  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  to  the  Kabbalistic  writings, 
and  have  endeavored,  whenever  possible,  to 
consult  the  original  sources  and  translate 
them  faithfully. 

The  material  was  prepared  by  me  during 
the  winter  of  1903-4,  and  then  incorporated 
in  a  course  of  lectures  which  were  delivered 
before  the  Young  Men's  Hebrew  Associa- 
tion of  Philadelphia.  Since  then  I  have 
made  numerous  changes  in  the  work,  the  re- 
sult of  further  study  and  Investigation  on  the 
subject.  I  aim  to  give  due  credit  to  the 
authorities  I  have  consulted,  in  notes  at  the 
end  of  the  book,  which  may  prove  useful  to 
the  student  for  further  investigation. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  express  my  grati- 
tude to  Mrs.  D.  W.  Amram,  who  greatly  as- 
sisted me  in  the  revision  of  the  style  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  material.     I  also  wish  to 


PREFACE  II 

give  thanks  to  Professor  Morris  Jastrovv,  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  for  much 
valuable  assistance,  both  in  suggestions  with 
regard  to  the  subject-matter  and  in  permit- 
ting me  the  use  of  books  I  could  not  other- 
wise have  obtained. 

Julius  H.  Greenstone 

Philadelphia,  January,   1906 


CONTENTS 


PREFACE 

(page  7) 


CHAPTER  I 

IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES 

Israel's  Golden  Era  in  the  Future — Early  History 
Gloomy — Hence  Desire  for  a  Redeemer — The 
•'  Judge,"  later  the  King,  regarded  as  the  Re- 
deemer— David  the  Model  of  the  Messiah — The 
Ideal  extended — The  Division  of  the  Kingdom  in- 
tensifies the  Messianic  Hope — Amos  and  Hosea 
— The  Universalism  of  Isaiah — "  The  Remnant " 
— The  Child  Immanuel — Idea  developed  in  Three 
Prophecies — Personal  Messiah  not  mentioned  in 
an  Old  Prophecy  quoted  by  Isaiah  and  Micah— 
Religious  Regeneration  under  Joash — Downfall 
of  Assyria — Nahum  and  Zephaniah  make  no 
Reference  to  a  Personal  Messiah — The  Mes- 
sianic Era  and  the  Spiritual  Regeneration  of 
the  Whole  World — Jeremiah's  Theocracy — The 
Miraculous  introduced  in  the  Messiah  Idea — 
Emphasized  by  Ezekiel  and  Joel — The  Mes- 
sianic Era  as  described  by  Isaiah  of  the  Exile — 
"The  Servant  of  the  Lord" — Universalism— 
Haggai  and  Zechariah  regard  Zerubbabel  as  the 
Messiah— Their  Conception  of  the  Messianic 
Era  restricted — Some  Psalms  and  Malachi  echo 
Isaiah's    Universalisxn page   21 


14  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH 

Return  from  Babylon — Great  Change  in  the  Char- 
acter of  the  Nation — The  Scribe  rises  to  Power 
— Ezra  and  Nehemiah  strengthen  the  Observ- 
ance of  the  Law — Malachi  introduces  the  Figure 
of  EHjah  in  the  Messianic  Conception — Ob- 
servance of  the  Law  a  Condition  of  the  Mes- 
sianic Hope — Behef  in  the  Resurrection  thus 
made  more  Prominent — Individual  Responsi- 
bility and  Importance  stimulated — Rise  of 
Apocryphal  and  Apocalyptic  Literature — Ben 
Sira — The  Book  of  Tobit — Judah  Maccabee  not 
recognized  as  the  Messiah — The  Book  of  Daniel 
— The  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch — Notion  of  Two 
Worlds,  the  Present  and  the  P\iture — Apocalypse 
of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs — The  Third  Sybilline 
Book — An  Exalted  Picture  of  the  Reign  of  the 
Messiah — The  Psalms  of  Solomon — The  Person 
of  the  Messiah  placed  in  Sharpest  Relief — The 
Similitudes — Philo  and  the  Messianic  Era — The 
Unscrupulous  Rule  of  the  Roman  Procurators 
intensifies  the  Hope  for  Redemption — John  the 
Baptist — The  Messiahship  of  Jesus — "The 
Suffering  Messiah "  of  the  Early  Christ- 
ians     page   51 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD 

The  Talmud— Halachah  and  Haggadah— The  Hala- 
chah  the  Main  Element — The  Position  of  the 
Plaggadah  undefined — The  Messiah  Idea  in  the 
Talmud  not  settled — The  Hope  Intensest  after 
the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem — Johanan  ben 
Zakkai's  Insistence  that  Judaism  is  Law — The 
Apocalypses   of  Baruch  and  Ezra — The   Super- 


CONTENTS  15 


natural  Element  emphasized — Baruch's  Idea  of 
the  Resurrection — The  Hadrianic  Revolt — The 
Messiahship  of  Bar-Cochba  repudiated  by  the 
Rabbis — The  Early  Tannaim  silent  on  the  Mes- 
sianic Ideal — The  "Messianic  Woes" — Israel's 
Sufferings  increase— The  Wars  of  Gog  and 
Magog— The  Messiah  Son  of  Joseph— Elijah— 
The  Person  of  the  Messiah— Political  Inde- 
pendence— Conversion  of  the  Gentiles — The 
Future  Jerusalem — A  New  Covenant  of  the 
Law — The  Belief  in  Resurrection — The  Feast  of 
the  Righteous — The  Date  of  the  Messiah's  Ar- 
rival—Calculation of  the  Date  discouraged- 
Julian  the  Apostate— His  Offer  to  rebuild  the 
Temple  not  received  with  Enthusiasm— Moses 
of  Crete — Salutary  Influence  of  the  Extravagant 
Picture  of  Messianic  Times  drawti  by  the 
Rabbis    page    80 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM 

Spread  of  Mohammedanism — The  Geonini  and  their 
Influence— Rabbinic  Authority  questioned  by  the 
Arabic  Jews— The  Messiah  to  lighten  the  Yoke 
of  Rabbinism — Serene  of  Syria  advocates  Laxity 
in  the  Law— Abu-Isa  of  Ispahan  opposes  the 
Abbassides— "  The  Mysteries  of  Rabbi  Simeon 
ben  Johai" — Rise  of  Karaism — Incentive  to  a 
Rational  Study  of  the  Bible— Judah  Judghan— 
Jewish  Religious  Philosophy — Saadia  Gaon  and 
his  Rational  Views  on  the  Messianic  Beliefs — 
On  the  Resurrection — He  accounts  for  Israel's 
Trials — Two  Possible  Periods  of  Redemption — 
Saadia  on  the  Date  of  the  Messiah— Hai  Gaon 
— Abraham  Albargeloni's  Universalism— "  The 
Book  of  Zerubbabel  "—The  Mother  of  the  Mes- 
siah—Jehudah    Halevi— Patriotic    Spirit    in    his 


l6  CONTENTS 


Poems — "  The  Kuzari  " — Israel  the  Heart  of  the 
World — The  Mission  of  Israel— David  Alrui— 
Moses  Maimonides — The  Messianic  Belief  an 
Article  of  Faith — Maimonides  takes  Rabbinic 
Exaggerations  figuratively — The  Greatest  Bless- 
ing of  the  Future — His  Belief  in  the  Resur- 
lection  not  Definite — Hasdai  Crescas  and  Joseph 
Albo — Their  Theory  of  the  Resurrection — 
Rationalistic  Conceptions  not  universally  ac- 
cepted— Still  wield  a  Potent  Influence,  .page  114 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   DEVELOPMENT    IN    TPIE    KABBALAH 

Action  and  Reaction  in  Human  History — Excessive 
Rationalism  produces  Mysticism — Mysticism 
Valuable  in  Time  of  Persecution — The  Masses 
fail  to  understand  the  Kabbalah — Fanciful 
Speculations — Credulity  of  the  Masses  and  the 
Pseudo-Messiahs  —  Nahmanides  —  His  Disputa- 
tion with  Pablo  Christiani — His  Idea  of  the 
Messianic  Period — Tartar  Invasion  of  Palestine 
— Abraham  Abulafia's  Messiahship — Other  Im- 
postors— Moses  de  Leon  publishes  the  Zohar — 
Messianic  Speculations  in  the  Zohar — The  Date 
of  the  Messiah's  Arrival — The  Period  preceding 
the  Messianic  Age — "The  Suffering  Messiah" — 
The  Greatest  Achievement  of  the  Messianic  Age 
— The  Diffusion  of  Kabbalistic  Lore — Persecu- 
tions of  the  Jews  in  the  Fourteenth  Century — 
Moses  Botarel  claims  Messiahship — Isaac  Abar- 
banel  on  the  Advent  of  the  Messiah — Writes 
Three  Messianic  Books — His  Views  Rational — 
Yet  indulges  in  Calculations  of  the  Promised 
End — Asher  Lammlein  declares  himself  a  Fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah— Hope  of  the  Marranos 
aroused— David  Reubeni's  Political  Plans— He 
meets  with  Success  in  Rome  and  in  Portugal— 


CONTENTS  17 


Solomon  Molcho  attracted  by.  Reubeni's  Ad- 
ventures— Returns  to  Judaism — Arouses  Jews  of 
Turkey — Encouraged  by  Events — His  Dream- 
End  of  Reubeni  and  Molcho — The  Belief  in  the 
Kabbalah  not  impaired — Isaac  Lurya  and  Hay- 
yim  Vital — Beneficent  Influences  of  the  Kab- 
balah     page   156 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  KABBALISTIC  SPECULA- 
TIONS 

The  Protestant  Reformation — Luther's  Favorable 
Attitude  to  the  Jews — Hebrew  Literature  studied 
by  Christians — The  Wars  of  the  Reformation- 
Signs  of  the  Messianic  Era — Manasseh  ben 
Israel — The  Fifth  Monarchy  Men — The  Puritans 
— Manasseh  effects  the  Resettlement  of  the 
Jews  in  England — Aaron  Levi  identifies  the 
American  Indians  with  the  Ten  Tribes — 
Manasseh  believes  the  Messianic  Era  Near  at 
Hand — Manasseh  and  Cromwell— Sabbatai  Zebi 
announces  himself  as  the  Messiah — Pronounces 
the  Ineffable  Name  of  God — Excommunicated 
and  banished  from  Smyrna — In  Jerusalem — 
Nathan  Ghazati  his  Prophet — Recognized  as  the 
Messiah — The  ^Messianic  Theory  of  the  Sab- 
batians — Opposition  to  Rabbinism — Sabbatai 
turns  Mohammedan — Excitement  not  abated  by 
his  Death— Michael  Cardoso— Mordecai  ^  of 
Eisenstadt — Jacob  Querido — Judah  Hasid — 
Hayyim  Malach — Nehemiah  Hiyya  Hayyun — 
Rabbis  oppose  the  Pseudo-Messiahs— Moses 
Hayyim  Luzzatto  misled  by  Mystic  Speculations 
— Yankiev  Leibowitz  Frank — His  Theory  about 
the  Various  Messiahs — Franklsts  declare  their 
Principles — Their  Opposition  to  the  Talmud — 
Modern  Hasidism — Resume  of  the  Influence  of 
the  Kabbalah  page  203 


i8  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

RELIGIOUS  REFORM  AND  ZIONISM 

The  Emancipation  of  the  Jews — The  Desire  for 
Emancipation  causes  Apostasy — Reform  of  the 
Worship — The  Rabbis  opposed  to  Innovations — 
The  Messianic  Hope  and  the  Desire  for  Equal 
Rights — Messianic  Prayers  in  the  Early  Reform 
Prayer-Books — Holdheim  and  Geiger  establish 
the  Reform  Movement  on  a  Scientific  Basis — 
•Disbelieve  in  Jewish  Nationality — Hirsch  the 
Advocate  of  Orthodoxy — Spiritualizes  the  Mes- 
sianic Hope — Bernays'  Position — Zunz's  View — 
Second  Edition  of  the  Hamburg  Prayer-Book — 
Frankel  justifies  the  Desire  of  the  Jews  for  Po- 
litical Independence — Salomon  fears  Suspicion 
of  Disloyalty  to  the  State — Geiger's  Radical 
View — Frankel's  Second  Article  justly  criticised 
— Gabriel  Riesser — Rabbinical  Conferences — 
Einhorn's  Theory  of  the  Dispersion  of  Israel — 
Geiger  and  Frankel  on  the  Retention  of  He- 
brew in  the  Prayer-Book — Jewish  Emancipation 
strengthens  the  Messianic  Hope  among  Eastern 
Jews — Modern  Zionism — Kalischer's  View  of  the 
Messianic  Ideal — Other  Rabbis  protest  against 
hastening  the  Period  of  Redemption — The  Move- 
ment gains  Support — First  Colony  established  in 
Palestine — National  Sentiment  intensified  in 
Europe — Gives  Rise  to  National  Exclusivencss — 
Modern  Anti-Semitism  the  Result — Persecution 
of  the  Jews  in  Russia — Zionism  gains  many  Ad- 
herents—Rabbis reconcile  the  National  Re- 
awakening with  the  Messianic  Hope — Ahad  Ha- 
'Am's  Philosophic  Theory  of  Jewish  Nationalism 
— Belief  in  a  Personal  Messiah  still  entertained 
by  the  Majority  of  Jews — Zionism  a  Step 
toward  the  Greater  Ideal  of  the  Messianic 
Era    page  242 


CONTENTS  19 


APPENDIX 

THE    MESSIANIC    HOPE    IN    THE    JEWISH 

LITURGY 

(page  283) 

NOTES 

(page  305) 

INDEXES 

INDEX  TO  SCRIPTURAL  REFERENCES 
(page  339) 

INDEX  TO  TALMUDIC  REFERENCES 
(page  341) 

INDEX  TO  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS 
(page  343) 


CHAPTER  I 
In  Biblical  Times 

Israel's  Golden  Era  in  the  Future — Early  History 
Gloomy — Hence  Desire  for  a  Redeemer — The 
"Judge,"  later  the  King,  regarded  as  the  Re- 
deemer— David  the  Model  of  the  Messiah — The 
Ideal  extended — The  Division  of  the  Kingdom  in- 
tensifies the  Messianic  Hope — Amos  and  Hosea 
— The  Universalism  of  Isaiah — "  The  Remnant " 
— The  Child  Immanuel — Idea  developed  in  Three 
Prophecies — Personal  Messiah  not  mentioned  in 
an  Old  Prophecy  quoted  by  Isaiah  and  Micah — 
Religious  Regeneration  under  Joash — Downfall 
of  Assyria — Nahum  and  Zephaniah  make  no 
Reference  to  a  Personal  Messiah — The  Mes- 
sianic Era  and  the  Spiritual  Regeneration  of 
the  Whole  World — Jeremiah's  Theocracy — The 
Miraculous  introduced  in  the  Messiah  Idea — 
Emphasized  by  Ezekiel  and  Joel — The  Mes- 
sianic Era  as  described  by  Isaiah  of  the  Exile — 
"  The  Servant  of  the  Lord  " — Universalism — 
Plaggai  and  Zechariah  regard  Zerubbabel  as  the 
Messiah — Their  Conception  of  the  Messianic 
Era  restricted — Some  Psalms  and  Malachi  echo 
Isaiah's  Universalism. 

The  Messianic  idea  is  characteristically 
Jewish.  The  nations  of  antiquity,  despair- 
ing of  the  present  and  heedless  of  the  future, 
gloried  in  their  past,  in  which  they  saw  the 
perfection  of  all  happiness,  social  and  na- 
tional.    This  attitude  is  illustrated  by  Hesi- 


22  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

od's  and  Ovid's  description  of  the  five  suc- 
cessive ages  and  races  of  men,  beginning 
with  the  golden  age,  when  men  lived  hap- 
pily and  painlessly  on  the  fruits  of  the  un- 
tilled  soil,  passing  away  in  dreamless  sleep 
to  become  the  guardian  angels  of  the  world, 
until  the  iron  age,  the  most  degenerate  age 
of  all,  in  which  the  authors  themselves  lived. 
It  also  finds  expression  in  the  phrase,  current 
even  in  our  own  day,  "  the  good  old  times." 
As  a  religious  people,  believing  in  the  cre- 
ation of  the  world  by  a  good  and  perfect 
Being,  the  Jews  also  placed  perfection  at  the 
beginning ;  the  first  man,  the  direct  creation 
of  God,  must  necessarily  have  been  happy 
and  perfect.  Yet  this  idea,  which  has  given 
birth  to  a  number  of  dogmas  in  other  creeds, 
played  a  small  part  in  Jewish  theology. 
Even  the  Rabbis  of  the  Talmud,  in  their 
fanciful  explanations,  attach  little  import- 
ance to  the  "  fall  of  man,"  attributing  to 
Adam  many  atrocious  sins  while  in  Para- 
dise.'    The  Jew  looks  for  happiness  and  vir- 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  23 

tue,  not  to  a  past  golden  age,  but  to  the 
future,  to  "  the  end  of  days,"  a  favorite 
phrase  with  prophet  and  sage.  "  Though 
thy  beginning  was  small,  yet  thy  latter  end 
shall  greatly  increase"  (Job  8:7),^  was  a 
current  saying  among  the  Jews,  and  a  study 
of  the  early  history  of  Israel  explains  the  in- 
tensity of  this  belief  among  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple. No  glorious  conquests,  no  triumphant 
victories  marked  the  first  stages  of  Jewish 
communal  life.  The  events  recorded  in  the 
first  pages  of  Jewish  history,  clustering 
around  the  lives  of  the  early  patriarchs,  as 
retained  in  the  memory  of  the  people,  by  no 
means  present  a  roseate  picture.  Each  of 
the  patriarchs  had  to  leave  his  native  land 
and  wander  in  foreign  countries.  Each  was 
looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  was  unceas- 
ingly harassed  by  the  early  Pharaohs,  the 
Philistines,  the  nobles,  and  even  the  common 
herdsmen.  Then  came  Egyptian  slavery, 
with  all  its  horrors,  when  the  spirit  of  the 
people  was  entirely  crushed.     It  was  per- 


24  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

fectly  natural  that  a  people  with  such  a  past 
should  long  for  a  happier  future,  when  there 
would  be  an  end  to  their  sufferings.  Thus, 
when  Moses  appeared  as  a  redeemer,  he 
found  a  ready  welcome.'  As  this  ideal,  con- 
ceived in  trying  hours,  grew  and  developed 
in  the  consciousness  of  the  people,  it  assumed 
various  phases,  depending  on  internal  con- 
ditions and  on  environment,  but  it  never  en- 
tirely departed  from  the  Jewish  people. 

The  promise  made  to  the  patriarchs  was  at 
last  fulfilled,  and  Israel,  after  vanquishing 
the  original  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  entered 
upon  its  coveted  inheritance.  But  here  also 
its  national  peace  was  constantly  disturbed 
by  the  onslaughts  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
In  its  distress,  Israel,  it  is  related,  prayed  to 
its  God,  and  He  sent  a  "  judge,"  a  redeemer, 
who,  for  a  time,  drove  away  the  enemy,  and 
established  peace  in  the  land.  But  the  at- 
tacks of  the  foreign  tribes  became  so  constant 
and  persistent  that  the  temporary  "  judges," 
or  generals,  proved  insufficient  and  unsatis- 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  25 

factory,  and  there  arose  among-  the  people 
the  hope  that  a  nation  united  under  one  head 
might  be  able  to  withstand  the  surrounding 
foes. 

At  the  request  of  the  leaders  of  the  people, 
Samuel,  as  a  temporary  provision,  as  a  con- 
cession to  the  popular  will,  reluctantly  ap- 
pointed Saul  as  king  over  Israel.  Although 
he  was  designated  in  the  Bible  as  the  "  Mes- 
siah of  God"  (i  Sam.  24:7),  Saul  lacked 
the  essential  characteristics  of  the  true  Mes- 
siah. At  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he 
was  scorned  by  some,  who  said,  "  How  shall 
this  man  save  us?"  (i  Sam.  10:27). 

It  was  not  until  the  appointment  of  David 
that  the  popular  longing  for  a  redeemer  was 
completely  satisfied.  David  became  the  type 
and  the  ideal  of  a  Jewish  king,  the  model, 
for  all  time,  of  the  person  of  the  Messiah, 
indeed,  by  some  prophets  and  sages  identified 
with  the  Messiah.*  He  was  not  only  the 
ideal  hero  who  braved  the  enemy  undaunted, 
who  conquered  nations,  and  extended  the  do- 


26  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

minion  of  Israel,  but  he  was  also  the  sweet 
singer,  the  man  of  God,  the  moulder  of  the 
solidarity  of  the  nation  of  God.  The  popu- 
lar belief,  that  the  state  of  prosperity  inaug- 
urated by  him  would  last  forever,  was 
strengthened  by  Nathan's  prophecy,  that  the 
throne  of  David  would  be  established  for- 
ever (ii  Sam.  7:  12-16),  an  assurance  which 
David  himself  is  represented  as  offering  to 
his  son  Solomon  (i  Kings  2:4).  Thus,  a 
Psalmist  reflects  the  hopes  of  the  people  and 
their  memories  of  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
when  he  sings : 

In  his  days  let  the  righteous  flourish,  and  let 
abundant  peace  continue  till  the  moon  be  no  more. 
May  he  have  dominion  from  sea  to  sea,  from  the 
river  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth.  Let  them  that 
dwell  in  the  wilderness  kneel  down  before  him,  and 
his  enemies  lick  the  dust.  Let  kings  of  Tarshish 
pay  tribute,  kings  of  Sheba  and  Saba  offer  gifts. 
Yes,  let  all  kings  bow  down  before  him,  and  all 
nations  do  service  unto  him.  .  .  .  May  his  name 
endure  forever,  may  his  name  shine  as  long  as  the 
sun,  may  men  be  blessed  in  him,  and  all  nations  call 
him  happy  (Ps.  72:7-11,  17).° 

The  age  of  David  and  Solomon  may  be 
regarded  as  the  time  when  the  Messianic 


7A^  BIBLICAL  TIMES  27 

ideal  took  a  more  definite  shape  in  the  minds 
of  the  Jewish  people.  From  the  material 
desire  for  relief  from  an  oppressing  enemy, 
the  hope  extended  to  the  ideal  of  a  stable, 
national  g-overnment,  based  on  the  principles 
of  a  pure  morality  and  lofty  ideals,  a  hope 
which  was  intensified  by  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  and  through  the  efforts  of  the 
prophets,  who  now  begin  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance. The  prophets  not  only  kept  the 
flame  ablaze  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  but 
they  broadened  the  conception  of  the  Mes- 
siah and  of  the  Messianic  period  so  as  to  in- 
clude in  its  blessings  not  only  Israel,  but  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  Only  a  few  gener- 
ations after  Solomon's  death,  the  treasured 
ideal  of  poet  and  seer,  and  of  those  of  the 
people  who  were  still  loyal  to  the  old  tradi- 
tions, was  a  future  in  which  an  united  Israel 
would  be  supreme  in  a  world  established  on 
righteousness,  recognizing  the  glory  of  the 
God  of  Israel  and  the  beauty  of  His  Law. 
The  personal  Alessiah,  through  whom  God 


28  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

would  bless  the  world,  was  present  in  the 
minds  of  most  of  the  prophets,  although  not 
always  placed  by  them  in  the  foreground, 
when  they  described  the  glories  of  the  future 
era.  It  was  during  this  period  that  the  Mes- 
siah idea  was  developed,  and  became  an  es- 
tablished principle  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
and  a  component  part  of  Jewish  conscious- 
^^ness."  —— — - 

The  hope  for  a  reunion  of  Israel  under 
one  king  must  have  been  very  keen  after  the 
division  of  the  kingdom,  when  the  memory 
of  the  happy  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 
were  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  people, 
and  must  have  been  the  theme  of  the  preach- 
ers and  the  moralists.  Unfortunately,  we 
have  no  prophecies  written  at  that  early 
period.  It  was  not  until  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  the  division  that  the 
prophets  began  to  make  their  appearance. 
The  Messianic  conceptions  of  the  early  pro- 
phets were  local  and  material  in  their  nature, 
referring  only  to  Israel  and  to  the. physical 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  29 

blessings  of  which  it  stood  in  need.  The 
first  prophet  who  wrote  down  his  prophecy, 
Amos/  and  his  younger  contemporary  Ro- 
sea, draw  dark  and  threatening  pictures  of 
the  "  day  of  the  Lord,"  a  "  day  of  darkness 
and  not  of  Hght,"  a  day  of  vengeance  against 
Samaria  and  against  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
for  all  its  iniquities.  Both,  however,  empha- 
size the  prophecy  of  a  reunited  kingdom, 
when  "  the  children  of  Judah  and  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  will  be  gathered  together,  and 
appoint  themselves  one  head  "  (Hos.  2:2) 
— a  head  specified  by  Hosea  as  "  David  their 
king  "  (Hos.  3:5).  The  prophecy  of  Amos 
concludes  with  the  cheering  words : 

In  that  day  will  I  raise  up  the  tabernacle  of  David 
that  is  fallen,  and  close  up  the  breaches  thereof; 
and  I  will  raise  up  his  ruins,  and  I  will  build  it  as 
in  the  days  of  old.  .  .  .  And  I  will  bring  again  the 
captivity  of  My  people  of  Israel,  and  they  shall  build 
the  waste  cities,  and  inhabit  them;  and  they  shall 
plant  vineyards  and  drink  the  wine  thereof;  and  they 
shall  also  make  gardens,  and  eat  the  fruit  of  them. 
And  I  will  plant  them  upon  their  land,  and  they  shall 
no  more  be  pulled  up  out  of  their  land  which  I  have 
given  them,  saith  the  Lord  thy  God   (Amos  9:11; 


30  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Hosea's  prophecy,  "  On  that  day  God  will 
break  the  bow  and  the  sword  and  the  battle 
out  of  the  earth,  and  will  make  them  to  lie 
down  safely"  (Hcs.  2:20),"  refers  to  the 
peaceful  reunion  and  re-establishment  of  Is- 
rael and  Judah  on  their  land,  and  not  to  the 
universalistic  ideas  that  the  late  prophets  as- 
sociated with  the  Messianic  age.  These 
loftier  ideas  were  not  crystallized  until  the 
time  of  Isaiah,  who,  with  his  broad  view  of 
life  and  his  statesman's  insight  into  the 
events  of  history,  gave  to  this  latent  ideal  of 
the  Jewish  people  a  tendency  not  clearly  de- 
fined nor  accurately  described,  but  distinctly 
higher  and  broader.  None  of  the  later  pro- 
phets added  anything  substantially  new  to 
the  portrait,  drawn  by  this  greatest  prophet 
of  Judah,  of  the  future  kingdom  of  Israel 
and  its  ideal  king. 

Isaiah's  ministrations  extended  over  a  pro- 
tracted and  troublous  period  in  the  history 
of  Judah."  During  the  long  reign  of  Ahaz, 
godlessness  and  corruption  swayed  the  court 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  31 

and  the  nobles,  while,  without,  a  formidable 
enemy  was  waiting  for  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  destroy  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and 
put  a  foreign  ruler  on  its  throne  (Is.  7:6). 
Nor  did  peace  and  repose  attend  the  more 
righteous  reign  of  Hezekiah.  Internal  dis- 
sensions and  revolutions  gave  probability  to 
the  threat  of  Sennacherib's  Assyrian  hosts 
to  ruin  the  nation.  The  lives  of  the  nobles 
and  the  wealthy  classes  were  steeped  in  im- 
morality and  vice,  excessive  luxury  under- 
mined the  strength  of  the  people,  the  worship 
of  the  God  of  Israel  was  forsaken. 

Such  a  state  of  affairs  furnished  a  fitting 
opportunity  for  the  display  and  utilization  of 
the  wonderful  natural  gifts  of  Isaiah.  He 
brought  to  a  vocation  to  which  he  had  been 
called  early  in  life,  not  only  a  nature  richly 
endowed  with  gifts  of  the  highest  order  of 
genius,  but  also  a  knowledge  of  facts  and  a 
boldness  of  spirit  which  made  him  unhesi- 
tating in  his  judgments  and  inexorable  in 
his  demands.     Out  of  his  feeling  that  the 


THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


present  was  irredeemable,  since  the  upper 
classes  of  society  were  deaf  to  his  rebukes, 
he  developed  the  lofty  theory  of  the  "  rem- 
nant," which  is  the  basis  of  almost  all  his 
consolatory  prophecies.  Exile  is  Inevitable, 
God's  punishment  must  be  poured  out  upon 
the  sinful  nation,  but  a  remnant  will  return, 
and  in  the  land  of  Zion  will  establish  a  king- 
dom of  justice  and  of  righteousness.  The 
king  is  all  that  a  Jewish  king  should  not  be, 
hence  a  new  king  will  arise,  who,  endowed 
with  the  Divine  spirit,  will  reform  the  ad- 
ministration of  David's  realm,  and  establish 
peace  and  equity  in  the  land. 

"  For  centuries  the  monarchy  had  been  the  centre 
and  the  pivot  of  the  Jewish  constitution,  and  ac- 
cordingly one  prominent  feature  in  the  deUneation 
of  the  future  sketched  by  the  prophets  is  the  figure 
of  the  ideal  king,  who  will  realize  the  highest  pos- 
siblities  of  earthly  monarchy,  governing  Israel  with 
perfect  justice  and  perfect  wisdom,  and  securing  for 
his  subjects  perfect  peace,"  ^ 

Isaiah,  however,  gave  a  more  definite 
character  to  this  comparatively  vague  hope 
in   the   description  of  the  child   Immanuel 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  33 

(Is.  7  :  14),  which  he  first  sketched  in  outhne 
to  Ahaz.  Later  (Is.  9:5)  he  further  de- 
veloped his  ideal,  endowing  the  child  with 
exalted  qualities,  and  regarding  him  as  the 
future  savior  of  Israel,  who  will  increase  his 
dominions,  and  establish  peace  upon  the 
throne  of  David,  and  picturing  him  in  Chap- 
ter XI  as  the  embodiment  of  the  highest 
ideals  of  the  nation : 

And  there  shall  come  forth  a  rod  out  of  the  stem 
of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  shall  grow  out  of  its  roots. 
And  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  shall  rest  upon  him,  the 
spirit  of  wisdom  and  understanding,  the  spirit  of 
counsel  and  might,  the  spirit  of  knowledge  and  of 
the  fear  of  the  Lord.  And  he  shall  inspire  him 
with  the  fear  of  the  Lord;  and  he  shall  not  judge 
after  the  sight  of  his  eyes,  neither  reprove  after  the 
hearing  of  his  ears;  but  with  righteousness  shall 
he  judge  the  poor,  and  reprove  with  equity  the  meek 
of  the  earth;  and  he  shall  smite  the  earth  with  the 
rod  of  his  mouth,  and  with  the  breath  of  his  lips 
shall  he  slay  the  wicked.  And  righteousness  shall 
be  the  girdle  of  his  loins,  and  faithfulness  the  girdle 
of  his  hips.  The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb, 
and  the  leopard  shall  lie  down  with  the  kid;  and 
the  calf  and  the  young  lion  and  the  fatling  together; 
and  a  little  child  shall  lead  them.  And  the  cow  and 
the  bear  shall  feed ;  their  young  ones  shall  lie  down 
together;  and  the  lion  shall  eat  straw  like  the  ox. 


34  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

And  the  suckling  child  shall  play  on  the  hole  of 
the  asp,  and  the  weaned  child  shall  put  his  hand  on 
the  cockatrice'  den.  They  shall  not  hurt  nor  destroy 
in  all  My  holy  mountain;  for  the  earth  shall  be  full 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover 
the  sea  (Is.  ii :  1-9). 

These  three  prophecies  of  Isaiah  have  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy  among  Bib- 
heal  scholars,  who  find  it  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain, with  any  degree  of  probability,  to  what 
particular  periods  of  Isaiah's  life  they  should 
be  ascribed.  But  even  if  we  agree  with 
many  commentators,  that  the  first  two  pro- 
phecies refer  to  Hezekiah  and  to  the  redemp- 
tion from  an  immediate  foe,  it  is  certain  that 
the  last  and  most  glorious  of  the  three,  prob- 
ably written  a  generation  after  the  first 
prophecies,  when  he  was  disappointed  in  his 
hopes  of  a  literal  fulfilment  of  his  early 
dreams,  was  meant  to  be  independent  of 
time,  "  projected  upon  a  shifting  future." 

Isaiah's  conception  of  the  future  king  and 
of  the  period  in  which  he  will  rule  has  many 
features  deserving  of  careful  investigation. 
The  Messiah  pictured  in  Chapter  xi,  who  is 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES 


to  bring  peace  and  comfort  to  the  Jewish 
people,  shall  establish  an  ideal  government 
of  righteousness,  and  the  crowning  glory  of 
the  age  shall  be  that  "  the  land  shall  be  full 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  as  the  waters 
cover  the  sea."  The  central  figure  of  the 
future  age  is  th^ersonal  Messiah,  "  the  root 
of  Jesse,"  who,  when  the  religion  of  Israel 
shall  have  spread  all  over  the  world,  "  w  ill 
stand  for  an  ensign  to  the  nations,  to  it  shall 
the  people  seek"  (Is.  iirio)."  An  older 
prophecy,  quoted  by  Isaiah  and  by  Micah, 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  prophecy  in  the 
whole  Bible,  leaves  out  the  personality  of  the 
Messiah,  but  emphasizes  the  local  conception 
of  the  Messianic  age,  in  that  it  makes  Zion 
and  Jerusalem  the  only  fount  of  future  re- 
ligious inspiration : 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  end  of  days,  that 
the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  estab- 
lished on  the  top  of  the  mountains,  and  shall  be 
exalted  above  the  hills,  and  all  nations  shall  flow 
unto  it.  And  many  people  will  go  and  say,  Come 
ye  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountain  of  the  Lord, 
to  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob ;  and  He  will  teach 


36  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

us  of  His  ways,  and  we  will  walk  in  His  paths;  for 
out  of  Zion  shall  go  forth  the  law,  and  the  word  of 
the  Lord  from  Jerusalem.  And  He  shall  judge 
among  the  nations,  and  shall  rebuke  many  people; 
and  they  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares 
and  their  spears  into  pruning  hooks ;  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall  they  learn 
war  any  more  (Is.  2:2-4;  and  Mic.  4:  1-4)." 

Lofty  and  comprehensive  as  these  prophe- 
cies are,  they  still  lack  the  universalistic  ele- 
ment which  some  interpreters  wish  to  read 
into  them.  Such  passages,  read  as  they  were 
read  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  prophets, 
show  that,  although  their  writers  were  far 
ahead  of  their  times,  they  still  clung  to  the 
prevalent  beliefs  and  hopes,  that  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  future  state  meant  the  perfection 
of  the  government  and  of  the  people  of 
Judah,  in  the  land  of  Palestine,  whence  the 
light  of  human  perfection  would  shine  forth 
and  illumine  all  the  peoples  of  the  world, 
who  would,  however,  profit  only  incidentally 
by  the  improvement  in  Israel,  the  direct  bene- 
ficiary of  God's  blessings." 

With  the  literal  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  pro- 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  37 

phecy  to  King  Hezekiah,  that  Judah  would 
not  fall  a  prey  to  the  Assyrian  hosts,  the 
danger  threatening  Jerusalem  and  the  throne 
of  David  was  miraculously  removed.  The 
cessation  from  war  and  the  improvements  in 
the  religious  and  moral  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple during  the  latter  part  of  Hezekiah's 
reign,  gave  the  peace  of  mind  and  liberty  of 
thought  necessary  for  literary  work,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  production  of  a  large  portion  of 
the  Biblical  literature.  But  this  state  of  pros- 
perity was  of  very  short  duration.  Under 
the  reign  of  Manasseh,  the  powerful  resur- 
gence of  all  the  evils  that  had  formerly  pol- 
luted the  land  of  Judah,  brought  in  an  era 
of  degeneration  and  national  decay,  evi- 
denced in  the  avarice,  immorality,  and  degra- 
dation among  the  nobles,  and  the  spread 
among  the  people  of  the  degrading  worship 
of  Baal  and  Astarte,  the  gods  of  hated 
Assyria. 

Naturally,   the  high-minded   disciples   of 
Isaiah  were  persecuted  by  the  unscrupulous 


38  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

rulers  under  Manasseh.  According  to  tra- 
dition, the  great  Isaiah  himself  was  killed  by 
the  hands  of  the  wicked  king.  These  shock- 
ing conditions  continued  during  the  short 
reign  of  Amon.  All  the  glorious  prophecies 
of  Isaiah  and  of  Micah  appeared  to  have 
been  but  empty  words.  But  with  the  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  of  Josiah,  the  eight-year- 
old  son  of  the  assassinated  Amon,  a  new  or- 
der of  things  set  in. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  the  rule  of 
the  land  probably  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  nobles,  to  whose  interest  it  was  to  estab- 
lish more  firmly  the  policy  of  Manasseh. 
But  as  the  king  grew  older,  he  began  to 
manifest  his  ambition  of  regenerating  the 
nation  and  re-establishing  the  worship  of 
God.  He  removed  the  hated  gods  of  Assy- 
ria, purified  the  Temple  worship,  and  pro- 
mulgated the  law  of  Israel  throughout  the 
land  of  Judah.  The  religious  revolution  re- 
ceived a  strong  impetus  from  political  condi- 
tions in  the  Eastern  world.     Assyria,  which 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  39 

had  long  ruled  the  nations  of  antiquity  with 
an  iron  hand,  was  in  its  decline,  its  powers 
gradually  weakened,  and  its  dominion  was 
reduced  by  the  rise  of  new  powers,  the  Chal- 
deans, the  Medes,  and  the  Scythians.  Its 
final  destruction  by  one  or  the  other  of  these 
nations  was  only  a  question  of  time.  The 
Jewish  antipathy  to  Assyria  w^as  strength- 
ened by  her  weakness.  It  facilitated  the  re- 
nunciation of  the  Assyrian  cults  by  the 
Judeans,  after  they  had  swayed  Judea  for 
many  centuries,  and  the  voice  of  prophet  and 
preacher  was  again  heard  in  the  assemblies 
of  the  nation." 

Nahum  prophesied  early  in  the  reign  of 
this  righteous  king,  and  his  prognostications 
about  the  fall  of  Nineveh  and  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  Messianic  period  compare  in 
beauty  and  force  with  many  of  the  utterances 
of  Isaiah.  "  Behold  upon  the  mountains  the 
feet  of  him  that  bringeth  good  tidings,  that 
publisheth  peace "  ( Nah.  2:1)."  In  his 
prophetic  vision,  he  sees  the  doom  of  Assy- 


40  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

ria  sealed,  the  wrongs  committed  upon  the 
people  of  God  avenged,  and  the  Messianic 
kingdom  following  close  upon  the  fall  of 
Nineveh.  Neither  he  nor  his  contemporary 
Zephaniah  refers  to  a  personal  Messiah.  The 
prophecies  of  the  latter  are  in  some  regards 
even  more  universal  than  those  of  Isaiah. 
He  conceives  a  Messianic  period  which  will 
be  a  time  of  spiritual  regeneration  for  the 
whole  world.  "  Then  I  will  turn  to  the  peo- 
ples a  pure  language  that  they  may  all  call 
upon  the  name  of  the  Lord,  to  serve  Him 
with  one  consent  "  (Zeph.  3:9).  He  gives 
a  striking  picture  of  the  day  of  the  Lord,  "  a 
day  of  wrath,  a  day  of  trouble  and  distress, 
a  day  of  wasteness  and  desolation,  a  day  of 
darkness  and  gloominess,  a  day  of  clouds  and 
thick  darkness  "  (Zeph.  i :  15) — a  day  that 
is  near  at  hand,  when  not  only  Assyria,  but 
all  the  nations,  including  Judah,  shall  be 
punished,  because  they  have  not  heeded  that 
God  punishes  His  foes,  and  have  not  taken 
to  heart  the  punishment  that  befell  the  other 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  41 


nations  because  of  their  evil-doings  (Zeph. 
3:7;  2:10).  But  there  shall  remain  a 
righteous  remnant,  "  an  afflicted  and  poor 
people,  and  they  shall  trust  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord.  The  remnant  of  Israel  shall  not 
do  iniquity  nor  speak  lies,  neither  shall  a 
deceitful  tongue  be  found  in  their  mouth,  for 
they  shall  feed  and  lie  down  and  none  shall 
make  them  afraid  "  (Zeph.  3  :  12,  13)."  Ze- 
phaniah  concludes  his  prophecy :  "  The  king 
of  Israel  will  be  the  Lord  in  thy  midst,  thou 
shalt  see  no  evil  any  more  "  (Zeph.  3:  15). 
This  sentiment  is  echoed  by  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  31:27;  33:9),  the  man  who  "has 
seen  affliction  by  the  rod  of  His  wrath  " 
(Lam.  3:1),  whose  sufferings  at  the  hands 
of  king  and  nobles  made  him  almost  despair 
of  a  human  king  ruling  in  righteousness,  al- 
though he  does  not  doubt  God's  promise  of 
the  permanence  of  Israel.  There  will  also 
be  a  human  king,  a  scion  of  the  house  of 
David,  since  God  has  sworn  unto  David  that 
his  dynasty  shall  last  forever  (Jer.  33 :  25, 


42  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

26).  But  this  king  will  be  directly  ap- 
pointed by  God,  who  shall  Himself  rule 
Israel  in  Jerusalem,  the  throne  of  God, 
whereto  all  nations  will  be  gathered  (Jer. 
3:15;  30:3,  22,  25).  Jeremiah  also  be- 
lieved, that  the  advent  of  better  days  would 
be  preceded  by  miracles,  since  a  natural 
course  could  not  bring  about  the  desired 
state.  This  idea  was  especially  fostered  by 
the  prophets  of  the  Exile.  Ezekiel  compares 
the  future  regeneration  of  the  nation  with  a 
miraculous  act  like  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  (Ezek.  37:11-14),''  and  Joel,  speak- 
ing of  the  Messianic  period,  says,  "  The  sun 
and  the  moon  will  be  darkened  and  the  stars 
shall  withdraw  their  shining  ...  the  heav- 
ens and  the  earth  shall  shake,  but  the  Lord 
will  be  the  protection  of  His  people  and  the 
strength  of  the  children  of  Israel  "  (Joel  3 : 

4-S)-" 

Thus  from  the  simple  idea  of  a  warrior,  a 
protector  of  the  people  against  foreign  foes, 
the  Messiah  idea  developed  into  the  expec- 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  43 


tation  of  the  rise  of  a  great  and  glorious 
king  of  the  house  of  David,  who,  with  the 
sanction  of  God  and  possessed  of  the  spirit 
of  God,  would  rule  in  righteousness  in  Zion, 
the  model  for  the  whole  world,  whereto  all 
the  nations  would  come  to  learn  of  God's 
ways.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  be- 
tween the  earlier  and  the  later  prophets  as  to 
the  position  of  Israel  among  the  nations  in 
the  future  Messianic  era.  Isaiah  does  not 
consider  political  conquest,  but  prophesies 
Israel's  spiritual  conquest  of  the  world.  The 
later  prophets,  however,  especially  those  who 
prophesied  during  and  immediately  after  the 
Exile,  embittered  by  the  persecutions  of  the 
gentiles,  are  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than 
the  complete  annihilation  of  all  who  were  at 
one  time  or  another  the  enemies  of  Israel. 

A  perfect  picture  of  the  Messianic  period 
with  the  Messiah  left  out  is  given  in  the  im- 
passioned and  visionary  chapters  of  the 
Isaiah  of  the  Exile.  Although  his  prophecies 
also  refer  to  an  immediate  future,  associated 


44  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

with  the  restoration  of  Zion,  and  he  even 
alludes  to  the  everlasting  covenant  made 
with  David,  yet  the  scope  of  his  vision  is  so 
much  broader,  his  pictures  so  much  more 
original,  and  his  thoughts  so  much  more 
comprehensive,  than  those  of  his  predeces- 
sors, that  his  prophecies  may  well  be  regard- 
ed as  a  starting-point  for  a  new  development 
of  the  Messiah  idea  among  the  Jews.  The 
conditions  of  his  time  were  most  conducive 
to  the  formation  of  exalted  pictures  in  the 
fertile  imagination  of  a  poetic  genius.  The 
Babylonian  empire  was  still  well  established, 
and  no  hope  for  its  downfall  could  be  enter- 
tained. Jerusalem  lay  in  ruins,  the  Temple 
was  reduced  to  ashes  (Is.  64:9-10),  the 
unfortunate  exiles  were  in  despair.  The  ig- 
nominious end  of  the  northern  kingdom  was 
still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  Would 
Judah  come  to  the  same  end?  Would  the 
people  of  God  be  entirely  swallowed  up  by 
the  idolatrous  nations,  and  the  worship  of 
the  one  God  become  extinct?     No,  says  the 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  45 

prophet,  this  is  impossible.  God  will  in  the 
end  triumph  over  the  idols,  and  again  estab- 
lish His  kingdom  through  the  mediation  of 
His  servant  Israel.  "  Comfort  ye,  comfort 
ye,  My  people,  saith  your  God  "  (Is.  40:  i), 
is  the  theme  of  the  prophecy,  which  extends 
to  twenty-seven  chapters. 

With  the  sagacity  and  foresight  of  the 
true  diplomat,  the  prophet  sees  the  ruin  of 
Babylon  at  the  hands  of  the  rising  power  of 
Persia.  He  sees  in  Cyrus  "  the  anointed  of 
God"  (Is.  45:1),  through  whom  the  re- 
demption of  Israel  will  come.  In  all  the 
great  events  attending  the  ascendency  of  the 
Persian  monarchy  (which,  had  it  not  been 
for  Athenian  patriotism,  would  have  absorb- 
ed even  the  nations  of  Europe),  he  sees  the 
work  of  God  in  behalf  of  His  servant  Jacob, 
and  Israel  His  chosen  one  (Is.  45:4). 
There  is  much  divergence  of  opinion  among 
modern  commentators  as  to  whom  the  pro- 
phet meant  by  the  designation  "  the  servant 
of  the  Lord,"  whom  he  makes  the  prominent 


46  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

figure  in  the  future  redemption.  Following 
Driver,''"  we  shall  take  it  as  referring  to  Is- 
rael, not  as  an  aggregate  of  individuals,  but 
as  an  historical  entity,  "  maintaining  its  con- 
tinuity and  essential  character  through  suc- 
cessive generations."  This  "  servant  of  the 
Lord,"  although  now  suffering  and  perse- 
cuted, the  despised  of  men  and  beset  with 
many  maladies,  will  soon  be  "  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  new  covenant  between  God  and 
His  people  to  restore  the  actual  nation  .  .  . 
and  to  re-establish  them  in  their  own  land  " 
(Is.  49 :  5-8).  He  will  be  a  light  to  all  the 
nations,  the  prophet  of  the  world,  the  teacher 
of  the  gentiles,  guiding  them  in  the  princi- 
ples of  true  religion  and  righteousness  (42: 
1-7).  The  image  of  the  restored  Jerusalem 
becomes  more  and  more  perfect  in  the  pro- 
phetic mind.  In  Chapter  lx  the  picture  is 
presented  in  fullest  splendor — of  Jerusalem, 
the  religious  centre  of  the  world,  the 
joy  of  all  generations  (60:  15),  beautiful 
(54:11,12),    and    perfected,    founded   on 


IN  BIBLICAL  TIMES  47 


righteousness,  its  inhabitants  praising  the 
God  of  Israel  (60:21).  All  nations  will 
pay  homage  to  the  restored  community,  and 
will  adopt  the  great  truths  advocated  by 
Israel,  "  that  they  may  know  from  the  rising 
of  the  sun  and  from  the  West,  that  there  is 
none  besides  Me ;  I  am  the  Lord,  and  there 
is  none  else  "  (45  :  6) .  The  Temple  will  be- 
come the  house  of  prayer  for  all  nations 
(56:  7),  and  all  flesh  will  come  to  worship 
before  God  in  Jerusalem  (66:  23). 

This  wide  and  sublime  universalism  of  the 
Isaiah  of  the  Exile  was  probably  not  shared 
by  his  contemporaries,  most  of  whom,  amid 
the  miseries  of  the  Exile,  could  not  even 
comprehend  the  picture  when  it  was  pre- 
sented to  them.  The  promises  of  the  pre- 
vious prophets  were  only  partially  fulfilled. 
Babylon,  indeed,  had  fallen,  and  the  Israel- 
ites were  permitted  to  return  to  their  land, 
but  there  were  many  troubles  besetting  the 
newly-organized  community,  and  the  prom- 
ised glories  and  wonders  were  not  forth- 


48  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

.  While  many  of  the  exiles  spurned  the 
very  idea  of  a  return  to  Palestine,  the  great 
bulk  of  those  who  followed  Zerubbabel  re- 
garded him  as  God's  messenger,  and  hoped 
that  with  him  a  new  era  would  dawn  for 
Israel.  Both  Haggai  and  Zechariah  be- 
lieved Zerubbabel  to  be  the  long-awaited 
Messiah  (Hag.  2:23)."^  These  prophets 
present  a  much  more  restricted  conception  of 
the  Messianic  era,  which  they  pictured  as  fol- 
lowing a  catastrophe  that  would  bring  ruin 
to  the  whole  world,  destroying  the  heathen 
nations  and  causing  all  their  costly  posses- 
sions to  be  brought  to  the  house  of  God,  the 
rebuilding  of  which  would  be  made  a  condi- 
tion of  the  advent  of  the  Messianic  kingdom 
(Zech.  1 :  14-17).'"  The  priest  is  of  equal  im- 
portance with  the  Messiah,  aye,  even  more 
important,  for  to  him  God  makes  known  His 
plans  for  the  future.  Zechariah  also  speaks 
of  a  moral  reformation  in  the  future  king- 
dom (Zech.  8:3),''^  and  even  hints  at  the 
conversion  of  the  nations  of  the  world  to  the 


m  BIBLICAL  TIMES  49 

worship  of  the  God  of  Israel  (Zech.  2:  15; 
8:20-23)/* 

Yet  the  subHme  prophecies  of  the  Isaiah 
of  the  Exile  find  an  echo  even  during  this 
period  of  the  restoration.  Many  of  the 
psalms  of  that  time  give  expression  to  a 
wide  universalism.''  Malachi,  somewhat 
later  (before  458),  enthusiastically  declares 
that  "  from  the  rising  of  the  sun  even  unto 
the  going  down  of  the  same,  My  name  shall 
be  great  among  the  gentiles;  and  in  every 
place,  incense  shall  be  offered  unto  My  name, 
and  a  pure  offering;  for  My  name  shall  be 
great  among  the  heathens,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts  "  (Mai.  1 :  11).  In  the  earlier  times, 
however,  the  people  who  held  that  "  the  time 
has  not  yet  come  to  rebuild  the  Temple  '* 
(Hag.  1:2),  had  to  be  aroused  by  more  ma- 
terial pictures,  which  the  good  sense  and 
patriotism  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  sup- 
plied. Zerubbabel,  himself  a  scion  of  the 
Davidic  dynasty,  was  to  the  people  the  living 
reminder  of  a  glorious  past  and  the  pledge  of 


50  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

an  equally  glorious  future.  But  this  very- 
fact  proved  to  be  a  great  obstacle  to  the 
young  community.  The  enemies  of  Judea 
found  therein  an  opportunity  for  accusing 
the  Jews  of  a  desire  to  re-establish  the  royal 
house  of  David.  This  the  Persians  evidently 
did  not  wish.  Zerubbabel  was  obliged  to 
return  to  Babylon,  and  the  Messianic  hopes 
and  aspirations  were  again  unrealized. 

For  almost  two  centuries  after  the  restora- 
tion, nothing  is  heard  of  the  Messianic  hope 
in  the  Jewish  annals,  except  in  the  outpour- 
ings of  some  psalmists,  whose  exact  dates 
have  not  been  determined  with  accuracy. 


CHAPTER  II 
The  Second  Commonwealth 

Keturn  from  Babylon — Great  Change  in  the  Char- 
acter of  the  Nation — The  Scribe  rises  to  Power 
— Ezra  and  Nehemiah  strengthen  the  Observ- 
ance of  the  Law — Malachi  introduces  the  Figure 
of  EHjah  in  the  Messianic  Conception — Ob- 
servance of  the  Law  a  Condition  of  the  Mes- 
sianic Hope — Behef  in  the  Resurrection  thus 
made  more  Prominent — Individual  Responsi- 
bility and  Importance  stimulated — Rise  of 
Apocryphal  and  Apocalyptic  Literature — Ben 
Sira — The  Book  of  Tobit — Judah  Maccabee  not 
recognized  as  the  Messiah — The  Book  of  Daniel 
— The  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch — Notion  of  Two 
Worlds,  the  Present  and  the  Future — Apocalypse 
of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs — The  Third  Sybilline 
Book — An  Exalted  Picture  of  the  Reign  of  the 
Messiah — The  Psalms  of  Solomon — The  Person 
of  the  Messiah  placed  in  Sharpest  Relief — The 
Similitudes — Philo  and  the  Messianic  Era — The 
Unscrupulous  Rule  of  the  Roman  Procurators 
intensifies  the  Hope  for  Redemption — John  the 
Baptist — The  Messiahship  of  Jesus — "  The 
Suffering  Messiah"  of  the  Early  Christ- 
ians. 

One  of  the  most  important,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  most  obscure  periods  in  Jew- 
ish history,  is  that  immediately  following 
upon  the  return  from  Babylon.  Though  we 
can  judge  of  the  tremendous  importance  of 


52  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  period  from  the  marks  it  has  left  on  his- 
tory, we  meet  with  disappointment  when  we 
resort  to  contemporary  documents  for  the 
study  of  the  conditions  prevailing  during 
those  two  centuries.  We  must  content  our- 
selves with  conjecture  and  inference.  Re- 
ligious revolutions  were  transforming  con- 
ditions. In  the  course  of  two  centuries, 
idolatry,  against  which  the  prophets  had 
waged  so  bitter  and  unsuccessful  a  fight,  en- 
tirely and  forever  disappears.  New  concep- 
tions of  God  and  His  relation  to  man,  of 
Israel  and  its  place  among  the  nations  of  the 
world,  arise  and  take  root.  The  people,  who 
had  been  regarded  by  their  leaders  as  the 
most  stubborn  of  nations,  unaffected  by  the 
exhortations  of  prophet  or  priest,  become 
attentive  to  the  words  of  their  leaders,  even 
forsake  deep-rooted  affections  in  obedience 
to  a  stringent  code  of  laws.  Everywhere 
new  life  is  seen,  new  government,  new  doc- 
trines, new  customs  and  ceremonies. 

The  prince  of  the  house  of  David  is  rele- 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       53 

gated  to  a  secondary  position,  the  priest  be- 
comes the  nominal  ruler  of  the  people,  while 
the  Sofer,  the  Scribe,  the  man  learned  in  the 
law,  is  the  real  power  that  guides  the  desti- 
nies of  the  reorganized  commonwealth/ 
The  Torah,  until  then  known  only  to  the 
priest,  now  becomes  the  property  of  the 
masses  through  the  efforts  of  Ezra,  who 
transcribes  it  in  a  script  intelligible  to  the 
people,  and  has  his  scribes  make  many 
copies.  With  the  co-operation  of  Nehemiah, 
Ezra  succeeds  in  influencing  the  people  to 
live  up  to  the  precepts  of  the  Torah,  and  in 
introducing  new  institutions  and  customs,"" 
which  help  to  strengthen  and  deepen  the 
reverence  for  law  and  tradition. 

The  policy,  adopted  by  Ezra  and  his  asso- 
ciates and  followers,  of  reducing  all  belief 
and  practice  to  law,  and  expanding  the  law 
so  as  to  embrace  every  detail  of  life,  had  a 
negative  as  well  as  a  positive  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  doctrinal  beliefs  of 
tlie  Jews. 


54  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  law,  which  aimed  to  regulate  all  the 
actions  of  men,  allowed  their  thoughts  and 
beliefs  comparative  freedom.  In  fact,  the 
realm  of  faith  was  left  almost  unexplored  by 
the  Scribes,  who,  in  their  practical  wisdom, 
saw  that  action  is  more  important  than 
thought,  that  "  conduct  is  three-fourths  of 
life."  Leaving  matters  of  dogma  and  belief 
to  the  individual,  they,  therefore,  directed 
all  their  energies  toward  providing  for  the 
actual  needs  of  the  nation  as  they  understood 
them.  The  hope  for  the  advent  of  a  Mes- 
siah, like  other  doctrines  of  Judaism,  lay 
dormant  in  the  consciousness  of  the  people, 
undisturbed  by  investigation  and  research, 
awaiting  the  time  of  the  nation's  need.  In- 
deed, the  echo  of  the  Messianic  ideal  still 
reverberates  in  the  last  words  of  the  last 
prophet,  Malachi,  In  a  prophecy  character- 
istic enough  and  yet  with  distinct  variations 
from  those  of  his  predecessors,  he  pro- 
claimed a  great  and  awful  day  of  judgment 
for  the  wicked,  and  promised  that  the  sacri- 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       55 

fices  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  would  again 
become  acceptable  unto  the  Lord  as  they 
were  in  days  long  gone  by.  He  adds  the 
new  idea,  extensively  developed  by  Jewish 
and  Christian  theologians,  of  the  coming  of 
Elijah  the  prophet,  identifying  him  with  the 
angel  of  the  covenant,  who  shall  announce 
the  approach  of  the  great  day  of  the  Lord, 
and  reconcile  the  fathers  and  their  children.' 
Malachi  omits  all  mention  of  the  son  of 
David  or  of  any  other  earthly  king.  The 
most  important  element  in  his  prophecy,  a 
natural  feature  in  this  period  of  the  revival 
of  the  Torah,  is  that  the  observance  of  the 
Mosaic  law  is  made  the  condition  of  the 
realization  of  the  promise.  "  Remember  the 
law  of  Moses,  My  servant,  which  I  com- 
manded him  in  Horeb  "  (Mai.  3 :  22),*  is  the 
final  appeal  of  prophecy  before  its  voice  is 
hushed  forever.  Henceforth,  the  scribe 
takes  the  place  of  the  seer,  the  law  that  of 
prophecy,  its  interpretation  and  study  that 
of  impassioned  oratory  and  revelation,    f 


56  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

To  judge  from  their  records,  the  Jews  of 
that  period,  settled  in  their  own  land,  and 
occupied  with  the  development  of  their  insti- 
tutions, civil,  political,  and  religious,  found 
little  leisure  for  abstract  speculation.  Al- 
though their  association  with  the  Persians 
fostered  certain  beliefs  among  the  people,  yet 
they  were  not  fully  developed  until  a  later 
time,  and  were  never  given  that  prominent 
place  in  the  Jewish  polity  accorded  to  the 
law. 

Here  a  word  may  properly  be  said  with 
regard  to  the  modern  almost  chronic  tend- 
ency  to  find  the  origin  of  Jewish  ideas  and 
beliefs  in  the  thoughts  and  practices  of  other 
nations  of  antiquity.  Although  the  Jew  is 
no  exception  to  the  law  of  environment, 
and,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  absorbed 
many  of  the  notions  and  practices  of  the 
civilizations  with  which  he  came  in  contact, 
yet  he  has  always  given  them  the  stamp  of 
his  peculiar  monotheistic  morality.  Whether 
or  not  the  Babylonians  taught  our  ancestors 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       57 


the  story  of  the  flood,  the  story  as  it  is 
related   in   Genesis,   with   its   idea   of   one, 
rio-hteous  God,  kind  and  merciful   in  His 
justice,  has  very  little  in  common  with  the 
story  of   Per-napishtim,  as  related  on  the 
cuneiform  tablets,  with  its  coarse  notion  of 
a  multiplicity  of  deities,  selfish  and  quarrel- 
some, sensual  and  jealous.     The  same  dis- 
tinction can  be  noticed  in  all  the  stories,  laws, 
and  doctrines  which  the  Jews  are  now  said 
to  have  borrowed  from  other  nations. 
V  One  of  these  beliefs,  the  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead,  is  almost  inseparable 
from  the  Messianic  hope.     It  is  true  that 
the  Iranian  creed  promised  the  awakening  of 
the  dead  at  some  future  day,  when  Ahura- 
mazda,   the  god  of  light,   shall   have  con- 
quered and  destroyed  his  rival  Angro-main- 
jus,  the  god  of  darkness.     But  the  lofty  and 
spiritual  aspect  it  assumed  in  the  mind  of  the 
Jewish  teachers  and  sages  is  a  genuine  pro- 
duct of  Jewish  inspiration,  and  quite  unlike 
the  sordid  belief  of  the  Persian  Magi.     Al- 


58  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

though  the  beHef  in  the  immortaHty  of  the 
soul  existed  in  Israel  from  earliest  times,  as 
is  indicated  in  various  places  in  the  Bible,  it 
did  not  assume  definite  shape  until  this 
period,  when,  by  its  union  with  the  Messianic 
belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  nation,  it 
produced  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the  law 
and  its  observance  during  the  period  of  the 
Scribes,  could  not  but  deepen  the  conscious- 
ness of  every  individual  Jew,  that  he  was 
the  special  care  of  God's  providence.  ^  Up  to 
this  period,  God's  care  had  been  extended  to 
the  nation  as  a  community,  living,  praying, 
even  sinning  as  a  community,  in  which  the 
individual  was  lost.  The  nation  brought 
sacrifices  to  atone  for  the  sins  of  the  indi- 
viduals, and  even  the  thank-offerings  or 
peace-offerings  of  the  individual  had  to  be 
brought  to  the  Temple,  the  national  centre. 
With  the  emphasis  laid  by  Ezra  and  his 
associates  on  the  observance  of  the  minutiae 
of  the  law  by  the  individual  constituents  of 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       59 

this  society,  with  the  institution  of  individual 
prayers  and  of  separate  houses  of  prayer  dis- 
tinct from  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  there 
naturally  arises  a  deepening  of  the  sense  of 
personal  responsibility  and  importance,  and 
of  the  dependence  on  God's  care.  Believing 
implicitly  in  God's  assurance  of  the  perma- 
nence of  the  nation,  the  appearance  of  the 
Messiah  and  the  continuation  of  the  national 
centre  in  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  the  indi- 
vidual who  suffers  and  dies  faithful  to  God's 
precepts  and  loyal  to  his  national  ideas,  be- 
lieves that  he  shall  arise  from  death  to  share 
in  its  splendors.  **  He  will  not  permit  His 
pious  ones  to  see  destruction  "  (Ps.  16 :  10). 
Thus,  through  the  work  of  the  Soferim,  the 
doctrine  of  resurrection,  dimly  existing  in 
the  consciousness  of  the  few,  became  a  dis- 
tinct and  inseparable  feature  of  the  Messian- 
ic ideal.' ' 

Although  in  some  of  the  Biblical  refer- 
ences to  the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  the  authors  seem  to  doubt  the  fulfilment 


6o  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

of  the  miracle,'  the  doctrine  as  a  whole  was 
firmly  established  in  the  hearts  of  the  people. 
It  was  first  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  doc- 
trine in  Isaiah :  "  Thy  dead  men  shall  live. 
My  dead  bodies  shall  arise ;  awake  and  sing, 
ye  that  dwell  in  the  dust,  for  thy  dew  is  as 
the  dew  of  herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast  out 
her  dead  "  (Is.  26:  19)/  No  matter  when 
this  prophecy  was  written,  it  clearly  presents 
the  highest  development  of  Biblical  revela- 
tion on  the  subject.  Here,  for  the  first  time,* 
a  literal  resurrection  is  foretold,  not  for  all 
nations,  but  for  Israel  alone,  and  of  Israel 
only  the  righteous,  those  that  died  in  faith  in 
God  (Is.  26:  14),"  will  rise  again. 

When,  after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time, 
we  find  the  doctrine  again  in  Daniel,  it  is  in 
a  somewhat  different  form,  including  both 
the  righteous  and  the  wicked  in  the  miracle, 
the  former  rising  to  receive  their  reward,  the 
latter  their  punishment : 

And  many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  will 
awake,  some  to  everlasting  life  and  others  to  shame 
and  everlasting  contempt.     And  they  that  be  wise 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       6l 

shall  shine  as  the  brightness  of  the  firmament,  and 
they  that  turn  many  to  righteousness  as  the  stars  for 
ever  and  ever   (Dan.   12:2,  3)." 

In  these  two  passages  we  have  the  root  of 
all  subsequent  speculations  on  the  subject  of 
resurrection,  both  in  Judaism  and  in  Chris- 
tianity. 

With  the  death  of  the  beloved  Simon  the 
Just,  the  era  of  peace  and  of  Divine  grace  is 
considered  to  have  come  to  an  end.  In  the 
sad  and  terrible  times  that  follow,  the  small 
nation  was  harassed  within  and  without. 
Irresponsible  demagogues  appear  on  the 
scene,  who,  by  currying  favor  with  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucidse,  obtain  domin- 
ion and  oppress  the  people,  not  only  by  im- 
posing heavy  taxes  upon  them,  but  also  by 
outraging  their  most  sacred  sentiments  of 
religion  and  morality. 

It  was  inevitable  that  antagonistic  sects 
should  arise,  differing  not  only  in  political 
views,  but  also  in  their  attitude  to  the  prac- 
tices and  beliefs  of  Judaism.  Following  the 
law  of  simultaneous  action  and  reaction,  ex- 


62  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

treme  laxity  on  the  part  of  one  sect  produced 
excessive  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  other. 
Within  the  short  space  of  about  two  hundred 
years,  an  immense  literature  was  produced 
in  Palestine  and  without,  dealing  with  the 
various  problems  that  beset  the  people. 
Most  of  these  books,  being  unsanctioned  by 
the  synagogue  authorities,  were  entirely  lost, 
some  were  preserved  in  a  foreign  garb,  and 
some  are  only  now  being  recovered  from  the 
ruins  of  antiquity.  In  this  apocryphal  and 
apocalyptic  literature,"  we  find  mirrored  the 
hopes  and  aspirations  of  those  times,  when 
the  withdrawal  of  the  younger  generation 
from  the  old  tried  paths  aided  the  at- 
tempts of  the  enemy  to  complete  the  ruin 
of  Israel's  political  independence  and  its 
religious  freedom. 

The  Messianic  hope  finds  expression  in  al- 
most all  the  books  compiled  during  that 
period.  Even  the  books  written  by  Hellen- 
ists, such  as  the  Second  Book  of  Maccabees, 
the  Book  of  Baruch,  and  the  Wisdom  of  Sol- 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       63 

omon,  make  use  of  every  opportunity  to 
emphasize  and  strengthen  this  hope,  the  con- 
ception of  which,  however,  varies  greatly 
with  the  different  authors.  The  national 
consciousness  is  brought  out  most  promi- 
nently in  the  books  composed  by  Palestinian 
authors.  Ben  Sira  in  his  Ecclesiasticus,  the 
original  Hebrew  text  of  which  was  but  re- 
cently discovered,  prays  for  the  gathering  of 
the  dispersed  of  Israel,  and  their  deliverance 
from  all  their  troubles,"  for  the  punishment 
of  the  heathen  nations  and  their  rulers,"  and 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  and  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  its  worship."  He  proclaims 
his  belief  in  the  everlasting  duration  of 
Israel  as  a  nation"  and  of  the  house  of 
David  as  the  rulers  of  Israel,"  but  there  is  no 
definite  idea  of  a  Messiah,  nor  even  of  a 
Messianic  kingdom." 

The  Book  of  Tobit,  composed  at  about  the 
same  time,  also  contains  the  hope  that  at 
some  future  time  "  many  nations  will  come 
from  afar  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  God  with 


64  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

gifts  in  their  hands,"  the  righteous  will  be 
gathered,  and  Israel  will  be  exalted.  **  For 
Jerusalem  shall  be  built  up  with  sapphires 
and  emeralds  and  precious  stones ;  thy  walls 
and  towers  and  battlements  with  pure  gold. 
And  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  shall  be  paved 
with  beryl  and  carbuncle  and  stones  of 
Ophir."  " 

We  need  not  concern  ourselves  with  such 
matters  of  history  as  the  horrible  persecu- 
tions the  Jews  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the 
Syrian  king  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  des- 
perate battles  fought  by  the  Maccabean 
brothers,  and  the  final  victory  of  the  Jewish 
hosts,  which  was  followed  by  the  re-dedica- 
tion of  the  Temple  and  the  triumph  of  the 
Hasidim,  or,  as  they  were  later  called,  the 
Pharisees,  over  their  political  and  religious 
antagonists.  There  is,  however,  one  point 
in  the  history  of  this  epoch  which  calls  for 
some  explanation.  Some  writers "  would 
conclude  that  the  hope  for  a  personal  Mes- 
siah had  died  out  in  the  minds  of  the  people. 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       65 

because  there  is  no  reference  in  contempor- 
ary literature  to  the  behef  that  Judah  Macca- 
bee,  the  redeemer  of  his  people,  the  beloved 
general  of  his  army,  and  the  adored  hero  of 
his  nation,  was  the  long-expected  Messiah, — 
a  belief  most  natural  in  the  circumstances. 
It  was  re-born,  they  maintain,  only  at  the 
rise  of  Christianity.  But  this  conclusion  is 
sufficiently  refuted  by  the  constant  references 
to  a  personal  redeemer  in  the  early  apocalyp- 
tic writings.  To  my  mind,  the  opposite  is 
proved.  The  Messianic  ideal  was  so  firmly 
rooted  and  so  clearly  defined,  and  its  asso- 
ciation with  the  personal  Messiah,  the  king 
of  the  house  of  David,  so  obvious,  that  the 
people  would  regard  no  one  as  the  Messiah 
except  a  scion  of  the  Davidic  dynasty.  Since 
Judah  was  a  priest,  he  could  not  be  the  Mes- 
siah. God  had  assisted  him  and  given  him 
great  strength,  because  he  would  not  permit 
the  destruction  of  His  people,  but  this  tem- 
porary relief  was  not  the  prayed-for  redemp- 
tion at  the  end  of  days. 


66  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  affliction  of  the  nation  under  the  mad 
rule  of  Antiochus  gave  rise  to  a  series  of 
prophecies  and  visions  about  the  deHverance 
of  God's  people  and  about  the  final  day  of 
judgment,  in  the  apocalyptic  literature  of  the 
last  two  centuries  of  the  second  Jewish  com- 
monwealth. At  this  time,  when  the  afflicted 
nation  needed  much  encouragement  and  a 
strengthening  of  its  confidence  in  the  justice 
of  God,  the  promises  held  out  by  the  early 
prophets,  of  a  glorious  destiny  for  Israel, 
were  made  the  basis  of  larger  and  more  ex- 
travagant hopes  by  the  apocalyptic  authors. 
Under  the  names  of  pious  and  revered  men 
of  antiquity,  they  unrolled  the  future  in 
visions  and  parables,  and  dwelt  upon  the  jus- 
tice of  God  in  images  and  symbols  adapted  to 
the  comprehension  and  feeling  of  the  people. 
The  pictures  are  sometimes  too  artificial, 
often  bordering  on  the  bizarre,  the  descrip- 
tions betray  lack  of  critical  insight  and  his- 
torical knowledge,  the  theology  is  not  always 
sound,   and   is   frequently   in   disagreement 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       67 

with  Biblical  notions  of  God  and  His  rela- 
tion to  man.  Still,  the  simplicity  of  these 
writings,  the  naivete  of  the  authors,  and  the 
force  and  beauty  of  their  diction,  could  not 
but  inspire  a  languishing  people  with  hope, 
and  arouse  strong  patriotic  feelings.  These 
books  may  justly  be  regarded  as  occasional 
pamphlets  intended  to  have  only  ephemeral 
significance ;  yet  they  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  historian  who  wishes  to  trace 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  Messi- 
anic ideal.  It  is  true,  they  influenced  Chris- 
tianity more  than  Judaism,  but  the  fact  that 
they  were  written  by  Jews  and  composed  in 
Jewish  surroundings  presents  a  phenomenon 
with  which  the  historian  has  to  reckon. 

The  Book  of  Daniel,  although  included  in 
the  Bible,  is  of  an  apocalyptic  nature,  and  is 
thought  by  most  modern  scholars  to  have 
been  composed  during  this  period.  Even 
those  of  the  traditional  school,  who  believe 
that  it  contains  a  prophecy  delivered  during 
the  Babylonian  exile,  admit  that  its  visions 


68  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

refer  to  the  period  of  the  Syrian  persecu- 
tions. Disregarding  the  mysterious  refer- 
ences to  a  period  when  the  Messianic  era  will 
set  in,  a  subject  which  from  the  earliest  times 
has  much  perplexed  commentators,  both 
Jewish  and  Christian,  we  find  in  this  book 
a  true  Messianic  prophecy,  containing  all  the 
important  features  conceived  by  earlier 
and  later  Jewish  authorities — the  eternity  of 
the  nation,  its  future  glory,  in  which  all  the 
saints  will  share,  the  spread  of  the  nation's 
ideals  over  the  whole  world,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen  to  a  recognition  of  the 
worth  of  the  Jews  and  of  their  God. 

In  the  early  portions  of  the  Ethiopic  Book 
of  Enoch,  we  meet  with  all  the  features  char- 
acteristic of  the  apocalyptic  literature.  There 
full  expression  is  first  given  to  the  dualistic 
notion  of  two  worlds,  alluded  to  in  the  Bible 
and  worked  out  in  greatest  detail  by  later 
Jewish  and  Christian  writers — one  corrupt 
and  irredeemable,  ruled  by  Satan  and 
his  host  of  demons,  and  another,  a  future 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       69 

world,  ruled  with  perfect  justice  and  right- 
eousness. In  this  world,  the  seventy  shep- 
herds,"^  to  whose  care  Israel  has  been  in- 
trusted, with  the  permission  to  treat  it 
harshly  but  not  to  destroy  it,  disregard  the 
command,  ravage  and  persecute  Israel,  and 
destroy  the  sheep  of  the  Lord.  Whereupon 
the  Lord,  the  Master  of  the  sheep,  enthroned 
in  the  "  pleasant  land,"  ^  will  sit  in  judgment 
upon  the  faithless  shepherds,  and  condemn 
them  to  be  bound  and  thrown  into  the  abyss 
of  fire.  Then  the  sheep  that  have  strayed 
(probably  referring  to  the  Hellenists)  will 
be  cast  into  Gehenna,"^  Jerusalem  will  be  en- 
tirely destroyed,  and  God  Himself  will  set  up 
a  new  Jerusalem,  where  the  pious  of  His 
people  shall  be  established,  to  whom  the 
heathen  nations  shall  pay  homage,  and  ad- 
dress their  prayers.""*  The  dead  of  all  gen- 
erations will  rise  again  to  share  in  the  glo- 
rious kingdom,"  and  the  Messiah,  in  the 
guise  of  a  white  bullock,  will  appear,  all  the 
pious  will  be  transformed  in  his  likeness,  and 
God  will  rejoice  over  them." 


70  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  here  the  Mes- 
siah is  expected  to  come  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  reorganization  of  the  world,  when  every- 
thing is  already  perfected.  In  the  apoca- 
lypse of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  which  was 
probably  written  originally  in  Hebrew,  by 
Jews,'"  although  it  bears  decided  marks  of 
later  Christian  interpolations,  the  Messiah 
himself  is  assumed  to  judge  the  world  at  his 
coming,  open  the  gates  of  Paradise,  remove 
the  "  flaming  sword,"  and  give  his  saints  to 
eat  of  the  tree  of  life. 

A  more  exalted  picture  of  the  Messianic 
era  is  drawn  by  a  Jewish  Alexandrian  writer 
in  the  third  Sybilline  Book."  From  the 
East  God  will  send  a  king,"  who  will  put  an 
end  to  all  wars  and  establish  the  kingdom  of 
righteousness.  The  children  of  God  will 
live  in  peace  under  the  direct  protection  of 
God  Himself,  and  the  heathen  nations,  see- 
ing the  great  reward  that  has  come  to  Israel 
for  its  adherence  to  the  belief  in  one  God, 
will  embrace  Judaism  and  accept  God's  law, 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       71 


"  the  most  just  in  all  the  world."  ""  God  will 
dwell  in  Zion,  and  universal  peace  will  pre- 
vail on  earth.*' 

Rejoice,  O  maiden/^  and  be  merry,  for  to  thee  hath 
the  Creator  of  heaven  and  of  earth  given  eternal 
joy.  He  will  dwell  in  the  midst  of  thee;  thou  wilt 
have  undying  joy. 

Then  follows  the  picture  drawn  by  Isaiah, 
with  unimportant  modifications,  of  the  peace 
that  will  prevail  in  Messianic  times,  not  only 
among  men,  but  also  in  the  brute  creation. 

With  the  death  of  John  Hyrcanus,  the  de- 
cadence of  the  Hasmonean  dynasty  set  in. 
The  favor  shown  by  the  later  Hasmoneans 
to  the  unpopular  Sadducees  aroused  much 
dissatisfaction.  The  quarrels  between  the 
heirs  to  the  throne,  which  frequently  resulted 
in  fratricide  and  murder,  outraged  the  feel- 
ings of  the  better  class  of  Jews,  and,  lastly, 
the  appeal  made  to  Pompey  ^  to  settle  a  quar- 
rel between  two  aspirants  to  the  throne,  thus 
putting  the  Jewish  kingdom  at  the  mercy  of 
rapacious  Rome,  brought  about  a  powerful 
opposition  to  the  dynasty.     These  changes 


72  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

wrought  a  revolution  in  the  Jewish  concep- 
tion of  the  future,  inducing  increased  hope  in 
some  hearts,  and  in  others  utter  despair  of 
an  ultimate  regeneration  in  this  world,  so 
steeped  in  crime  and  corruption. 

In  the  Psalms  of  Solomon, "'  the  figure  of 
the  Messiah  is  placed  in  sharpest  relief,  and 
the  description  of  the  period  to  be  inaugu- 
rated by  him  is  most  vigorous  and  fascinat- 
ing. The  Messiah  is  represented  as  purging 
Jerusalem  of  its  sins,  judging  the  tribes  of 
the  nation,  apportioning  the  land  to  Israel 
according  to  the  tribes,  and  permitting  no 
stranger  to  dwell  in  the  midst  of  them. 
Though  conceived  as  pure  from  sin  and 
constantly  sustained  by  God's  holy  spirit," 
he  is  still  taken  to  be  only  a  temporary  ruler. 

The  author  of  the  Similitudes  of  the  Ethi- 
opic  Book  of  Enoch '"  makes  the  Messiah  al- 
most a  supernatural  being,'"  gives  him  titles, 
which  were  later  applied  to  Jesus  in  the  New 
Testament,  such  as  "  the  anointed,"  "  "  the 
elect  one,"  *   "  the  righteous  one,"  '"  "  the 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       73 

son  of  man."  **  It  regards  him  as  penetrat- 
ing the  deepest  mysteries  and  possessing  the 
power  of  reviving  the  dead,  and  accords  him 
a  place  in  the  immediate  presence  of  God. 

Another  v^riter,  despairing  of  a  regenera- 
tion of  this  world,  speaks  of  a  new  earth  and 
a  new  heaven  to  be  created,  in  which  the 
righteous,  who  will  be  raised  as  spirits,  will 
be  permitted  to  enter  and  enjoy  everlasting 
bliss."  The  bitterness  of  the  Jews  toward 
the  foreign  intruders  is  illustrated  by  the 
small  mercy  shown  the  gentiles  in  all  the 
Messianic  writings  of  this  time.  They  are 
either  completely  annihilated*"  or  subjected 
to  Israel,  the  world-power.'' 

The  intensity  and  prevalence  of  the  Mes- 
sianic hope  at  the  time  of  Jesus  is  attested 
by  the  tenacity  with  which  it  was  held 
even  by  the  philosophic  Hellenists,  who 
dwelt  in  comparative  freedom  in  Egypt. 
These  thinkers,  entirely  immersed  in  Greek 
morality  and  philosophy,  did  not  hesitate  to 
interpret   allegorically    even   the   laws    and 


74  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

events  recorded  in  the  Bible,  yet  they  clung 
to  the  national  hope,  and  depicted  the  future 
happiness  of  the  righteous  with  all  the  color- 
ing of  the  Palestinian  Jewish  writers.  Philo, 
the  chief  exponent  of  Alexandrian  Judaism, 
gives  two  descriptions  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom,  and,  although  he  makes  no  men- 
tion of  the  belief  in  resurrection,  neverthe- 
less the  fact  that  he  alludes  at  all  to  the 
notion  of  a  personal  Messiah,  is  convincing 
proof  of  its  firm  hold  on  all  classes,  both  in- 
side and  outside  of  Judea.  Speaking  of  the 
re-gathering  of  the  dispersed  of  Israel,  he 
says: 

But  when  they  have  received  this  unexpected  lib- 
erty, those  who  but  a  short  time  before  were  scat- 
tered about  in  Hellas  and  in  the  countries  of  the 
barbarians,  in  the  islands,  and  over  the  continents, 
rising  with  one  impulse,  and  coming  from  all  different 
quarters  imaginable,  all  hasten  to  one  place  pointed 
out  to  them,  being  guided  on  their  way  by  some 
vision,  more  Divine  than  is  compatible  with  its 
being  of  the  nature  of  man,  invisible,  indeed,  to  every 
one  else,  and  apparent  only  to  those  who  were  saved, 
having  their  separate  inducements  and  intercessions, 
by  whose  intervention  they  might  obtain  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  Father." 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       75 

In  another  place  ^°  he  describes  the  Mes- 
siah as  a  man  of  war  who  will  bring  an  era 
of  prosperity  and  peace,  when  men  will  turn 
unto  God,  and  the  Messianic  kingdom  as  a 
period  when  there  shall  be  universal  peace. 

The  feverish  expectation  of  miraculous  in- 
tervention by  God  reached  its  highest  tension 
during  the  cruel  dominion  of  the  unscrupu- 
lous Roman  Procurators,  and,  accordingly, 
the  masses  gave  a  ready  response  to  the  call 
of  John  the  Baptist :  "  Repent  ye ;  for  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand !  "  ^  The  stir- 
ring words  of  the  pious  Essene  moved  the 
hearts  of  his  hearers,  and  inspired  the  dis- 
tressed and  impoverished  multitudes  with 
burning  enthusiasm  in  their  expectation  of 
God's  anointed.  Even  after  John  was  im- 
prisoned, and  probably  beheaded  by  the 
Herodian  ruler,  who  naturally  considered 
the  preaching  of  so  influential  a  man  danger- 
ous to  the  dynasty  of  the  Edomite  usurper, 
his  work  was  carried  on  by  his  disciples,  by 
this  time  grown  to  large   numbers.     The 


76  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

flame  kindled  in  the  hearts  of  the  wretched 
community  could  not  easily  be  quenched. 

One  of  his  disciples,  who  was  particularly 
moved  by  John's  preaching,  was  Jesus  of 
Nazareth.  Of  humble  birth  and  not  very 
learned  in  the  law,  he  attracted  to  himself, 
by  his  sympathetic  nature  and  his  lofty  spir- 
itual attainments,  the  great  multitudes  of  the 
lower  classes  of  the  community,  and  exerted 
the  greatest  influence  upon  them.  Only  to 
a  few  select  and  devoted  disciples  he  reveal- 
ed himself  as  the  Messiah.  This  he  did  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  appear  that 
they  forced  a  reluctant  acknowledgment 
from  him.  On  one  occasion,  it  is  related,  he 
asked  his  disciples,  "  Who  do  men  say  that  I, 
the  son  of  man,  am  ?  "  and  they  said,  *'  Some 
say  John  the  Baptist,  some  Elijah,  and  oth- 
ers Jeremiah,  or  one  of  the  prophets."  He 
said  unto  them,  "  But  who  say  you  that  I 
am  ?  "  And  Simon  Peter  answered  and  said, 
"  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  son  of  the  living 
God,"  and  Jesus  blessed  him,  acknowledging 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       77 

that  the  information  must  have  come  from 
God,  and  promised  to  deHver  unto  him  "  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  "  And  he 
charged  his  disciples  to  "  tell  no  man  that  he 
v^as  the  Christ,"  *'  a  command  which  the  dis-  . 
ciples  little  heeded,  as  is  shown  in  the  subse- 
quent chapters. 

A  few  days  after  this  important  revela- 
tion, when  he  was  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem, 
the  disciples  suggested  that,  according  to  the 
traditions  of  the  Scribes,  Elijah  is  expected 
to  come  first.  To  this  Jesus  replied,  that 
Elijah  had  already  appeared,  "and  they 
knew  him  not,  but  did  unto  him  whatsoever 
they  listed.  .  .  .  Then  understood  the  dis- 
ciples that  he  spake  unto  them  of  John  the 
Baptist."  " 

*'  Such  was  the  mysteriously-veiled  birth 
of  Christianity,"  sufficiently  accounted  for 
by  the  many  persecutions  of  the  national 
enemy  and  the  internal  strife  among  the 
many  factions,  which  fanned  the  spark  long 
latent  in  the  heart?  of  the  people  of  Judea 


78  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

into  a  blazing  flame,  and  by  the  writings  and 
preachings  of  the  loyal  Pharisees  constantly 
stimulated  the  belief  in  the  advent  of  better 
days  under  the  guidance  of  a  man  appointed 
by  God.  The  suffering  was  so  acute,  the 
hope  so  keen,  and  the  promises  so  encour- 
aging that  after  Jesus  had  died  on  the 
cross  his  disciples  clung  to  his  Messiahship 
with  increased  tenacity,  and,  to  account  for 
their  belief,  evolved  the  theory  of  the  "  suf- 
fering Messiah,"  "*  in  accord  with  the  pro- 
phetic promise  that  the  Messiah  should  first 
suffer,  be  wounded,  and  executed  (and  here 
they  were  assisted  by  the  Pharisaic  method 
of  interpreting  Biblical  passages).  The  be- 
lief in  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  and  his  re- 
turn to  inaugurate  the  kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth,  naturally  follows  from  the  literal  ful- 
filment of  the  prophecy  about  his  sufferings. 
Hence  the  doctrine,  that  the  Messianic  hope 
was  only  partially  realized  in  the  time  of 
Jesus,  and  would  be  completely  realized  in 
the  fulness  of  days. 


THE  SECOND  COMMONWEALTH       yg 

In  the  course  of  one  century,  Judaism  dis- 
claimed all  relationship  with  the  new  reli- 
gion, made  new  by  the  teachings  of  Paul  of 
Tarsus.  It  continued  along  traditional  lines, 
still  praying  and  hoping  for  the  great  future 
to  come  and  for  the  Messiah  to  appear.  The 
ideal  was  not  exhausted.  It  continued  to 
grow  in  the  Jewish  consciousness,  offering 
solace  and  consolation  in  many  periods  of 
suffering  and  trial.  The  fact,  however,  re-  \ 
mains  that  the  immediate  success  of  Chris- 
tianity can  be  accounted  for  only  when  we 
consider  the  intense  Messianic  hope  that  ex- 
isted among  the  Jewish  people  during  the 
period  of  Roman  supremacy.  Thus  we 
have  the  phenomenon  of  a  Jewish  ideal,  de- 
veloped on  Jewish  soil,  which  has  influenced 
Jewish  life  and  habit,  and  has  been  influ- 
enced by  them,  giving  birth  to  a  creed  which, 
becoming  later  antagonistic  to  its  parent,  as- 
sumes an  entirely  separate  existence. 


CHAPTER  III 
The  Talmudic  Period 

The  Talmud— Halachah  and  Haggadah— The  Hala- 
chah  the  Main  Element — The  Position  of  the 
Haggadah  undefined — The  Messiah  Idea  in  the 
Talmud  not  settled— The  Hope  Intensest  after 
the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem — Johanan  ben 
Zakkai's  Insistence  that  Judaism  is  Law — The 
Apocalypses  of  Baruch  and  Ezra — The  Super- 
natural Element  emphasized— Baruch's  Idea  of 
the  Resurrection — The  Hadrianic  Revolt — The 
Messiahship  of  Bar-Cochba  repudiated  by  the 
Rabbis — The  Early  Tannaim  silent  on  the  Mes- 
sianic Ideal— The  "Messianic  Woes  "—Israel's 
Sufferings  increase — The  Wars  of  Gog  and 
Magog— The  Messiah  Son  of  Joseph— EHj ah— 
The  Person  of  the  Messiah— Political  Inde- 
pendence— Conversion  of  the  Gentiles — The 
Future  Jerusalem — A  New  Covenant  of  the 
Law — The  Belief  in  Resurrection— The  Feast  of 
the  Righteous— The  Date  of  the  Messiah's  Ar- 
rival-Calculation of  the  Date  discouraged- 
Julian  the  Apostate— His  Offer  to  rebuild  the 
Temple  not  received  with  Enthusiasm — Moses 
of  Crete— Salutary  Influence  of  the  Extravagant 
Picture  of  Messianic  Times  drawn  by  the 
Rabbis. 

The  Talmud,  as  is  well  known,  contains 

two    elements — Halachah    and    Haggadah, 

law  and  legend,  legal  discussion  and  homi- 

letic  interpretation. 

"It  is  only  after  a  time,"  says  Emanuel  Deutsch,* 
"that  the  student  learns  to  distinguish  between  two 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  8l 


mighty  currents  in  the  book — currents  that  at  times 
flow  parallel,  at  times  seem  to  work  upon  each  other, 
and  to  impede  each  other's  action :  the  one  emanating 
from  the  brain,  the  other  from  the  heart — the  one 
prose,  the  other  poetry — the  one  carrying  with  it 
all  those  mental  faculties  that  manifest  themselves 
in  arguing,  investigating,  comparing,  developing, 
bringing  a  thousand  points  to  bear  upon  one  and  one 
upon  a  thousand;  the  other  springing  from  the 
realms  of  fancy,  of  imagination,  feeling,  humor,  and 
above  all  from  that  precious  combination  of  still, 
almost  sad,  pensiveness,  with  quick  catholic  sym- 
pathies, which  in  German  is  called  Gemiith.  .  .  .  The 
first-named  is  called  'Halachah'  (Rule,  Norm), 
a  term  applied  both  to  the  process  of  evolving  legal 
enactments  and  the  enactments  themselves.  The  other, 
'Haggadah'  (Legend,  Saga),  not  so  much  in  our 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  though  a  great  part  of 
its  contents  come  under  that  head,  but  because  it 
was  only  a  'saying,'  a  thing  without  authority,  a 
play  of  fancy,  an  allegory,  a  parable,  a  tale,  that 
pointed  a  moral  and  illustrated  a  question,  that 
smoothed  the  billows  of  fierce  debate,  roused  the 
slumbering  attention,  and  was  generally— to  use  its 
own  phrase — a  *  comfort  and  blessing/  " 

Whatever  the  Talmud  is,  it  is  not  a  book 
of  theology.  The  many  theological  doc- 
trines contained  in  its  Haggadic  portions  are 
casual  and  incidental,  subordinate  to  its  prin- 
cipal content,  the  Halachah.  Law  was  the 
main  concern  of  the  Talmudists,  the  discus- 


82  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

sion  of  philosophy  and  theology,  a  pastime 
and  diversion.  The  Halachah  is  the  funda- 
mental element  of  the  Talmud;  it  was  of 
binding  authority,  while  the  Haggadah  is 
merely  an  interpretation  and  digression  from 
the  elaborate  legal  discussions,  and  carried 
little  authority  with  the  people.  Even  the 
Rabbis  themselves  regarded  its  study  as  un- 
important, rebuking  the  sage  who  gave  too 
much  time  to  homiletic  or  philosophic  dis- 
cussion.' 

This  loose  and  indefinite  position  of  the 
Haggadah  has  caused  much  perplexity  to 
modern  thinkers  who  have  attempted  to  re- 
construct, from  the  Talmud,  the  religious 
philosophy  of  its  sages.  The  Rabbis  re- 
quired conformity  in  practice,  not  so  much 
in  belief,  and,  accordingly,  allowed  to  the 
imagination  the  same  freedom  in  speculation 
about  transcendental  matters  as  was  allowed 
under  the  system  of  the  Scribes.  Only  such 
as  publicly  denied  the  cardinal  principles  of 
the  Jewish  religion  were  placed  outside  of 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  83 


the  fold,  and  even  they  were  not  persecuted 
for  their  behefs."  This  phase  of  the  Tal- 
mudic  Hterature  is  a  most  interesting  phe- 
nomenon, especially  when  we  consider  it  in 
conjunction  with  the  rapid  development  of 
dogmatics  taking  place  contemporaneously 
in  Christianity. 

The  same  indefiniteness  is  to  be  noticed  in 
the  interpretation  which  the  Rabbis  gave  to 
the  popular  hope  for  a  Messiah.  It  is  true, 
in  the  Talmud  and  the  Midrashim,  the  hope 
finds  a  more  prominent  and  detailed  expres- 
sion than  any  other  Jewish  belief  and  dog- 
ma, but  the  conception  itself  of  a  Messiah 
varies  so  much  with  individual  Rabbis,*  and 
the  divergence  of  opinion  with  regard  to  its 
details  is  so  great,  that  its  form  remains 
loose  and  unlimited.  Even  the  philosophers 
of  the  middle  ages  differed  greatly  in  their 
conception  of  the  hope,  so  that,  though  their 
legal  codes  were  accepted  as  binding  by  all 
Israel,  their  philosophic  theories  about  the 
dogmas  of  Judaism  were  never  taken  to  be 


84  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

absolutely  authoritative,  since  the  very 
sources  from  which  they  drew  their  informa- 
tion did  not  definitely  determine  these  dog- 
mas." 

The  feverish  hope  for  a  Messiah  must 
have  reached  its  highest  tension  during  the 
troublous  times  immediately  preceding  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.  Disloyal 
to  the  national  ideals  and  impatient  of  the 
cruelties  of  the  Roman  Procurators,  some 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Paul  of  Tarsus, 
and  joined  the  humble  band  of  Ebionites, 
or  Nazarenes.  Others,  deluded  by  the  pro- 
phetic and  Messianic  claims  of  the  many 
demagogues  arising  at  that  time,^  fell  a  prey 
to  the  Roman  legions.  Others,  again,  prac- 
tical patriots,  endeavored  to  resist  Titus's 
onslaughts  on  Jerusalem,  and,  in  their  stren- 
uous warfare,  had  little  time  for  speculation 
about  the  miraculous  advent  of  a  Messiah. 
The  wise  and  prudent,  however,  realizing 
the  futility  of  a  contest  with  Rome,  laid 
down  their  arms,  and  followed  Rabbi  Joha- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  85 

nan  ben  Zakkai  to  Jabne,  where  the  Sanhe- 
drin  was  reorganized. 

Here  we  see  most  plainly  the  hand  of  God 
in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people.  Cen- 
turies before  the  great  calamity  that  befell 
Israel  in  70  C.  E.,  when  the  Roman  eagle 
spread  its  wings  over  Palestine,  and  clouded 
all  the  hopes  and  aspirations  of  the  Jews, 
the  remedy  was  being  prepared  slowly  and 
surely,  through  the  teachings  of  the  Scribes 
and  the  much-maligned  Pharisees.  Juda- 
ism, they  taught,  is  not  a  national  institution 
nor  organized  ecclesiasticism,  requiring  a 
king,  a  priesthood,  and  a  Temple.  Judaism 
is  law,  a  guide  for  the  life  of  every  individ- 
ual. The  corruption  of  the  priesthood  and 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  national 
centre,  far  from  shaking  the  foundations  of 
the  Jewish  religion,  rather  cemented  the 
bond  between  the  people  and  the  Torah. 
The  study  of  the  law  took  the  place  of  sacri- 
fices, and  the  Yeshibah,  the  academy  of 
learning,  immediately  replaced  the  Temple, 
the  centre  of  national  worship. 


86  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  transition  was  almost  imperceptible, 
because  of  the  feeling  fostered  by  Scribe  and 
Pharisee,  that  the  law  is  the  mainstay  of 
Judaism,  that  king  and  priest,  Temple  and 
sacrifice  are  not  essential  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  Jewish  people.  Thus,  Rabbi  Joha- 
nan  ben  Zakkai,  worthy,  indeed,  of  all  the 
admiring  epithets  given  him  by  the  Jewish 
historian,  and  of  all  the  reverence  and  grati- 
tude entertained  for  him  by  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, showed  his  great  wisdom  in  utilizing,  to 
the  best  advantage  and  at  the  proper  time,  a 
sentiment  long  before  engendered. 

Before  proceeding  to  reconstruct  the  Mes- 
sianic hope,  as  conceived  by  the  Rabbis, 
from  the  sayings  scattered  through  the  Tal- 
mudim  and  the  Midrashim,  we  shall  mention 
two  books,  which,  although  characteristic 
Messianic  prophecies  and  masterpieces  of 
poetry,  exercised  but  little  influence  upon  the 
Jewish  conception  of  the  Messiah.  They  are 
the  apocalypses  of  Baruch  and  Ezra,  prob- 
ably written  by  Jews  during  the  period  im- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  87 


mediately  following  upon  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem. The  apocalypse  of  Ezra  has  long  been 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Christian  Church, 
and  that  of  Baruch  has  but  recently  been 
made  known  to  the  world/  The  writers  of 
both,  in  vivid  and  striking  language,  describe 
the  times  preceding  the  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah, his  coming  and  the  blessings  of  his 
kingdom,  which  both  consider  to  be  merely 
temporary.  Both  reflect  the  views,  common 
among  the  Jews  of  Palestine  of  that  time, 
that  his  coming  will  be  preceded  and  accom- 
panied by  supernatural  events.  Ezra  thus 
describes  the  day  of  judgment : 

It  shall  have  neither  sun  nor  moon  nor  stars, 
neither  cloud  nor  thunder  nor  lightning,  neither  wind 
nor  water  nor  air,  neither  darkness  nor  evening  nor 
morning,  neither  summer  nor  spring  nor  heat  nor 
winter,  neither  frost  nor  cold  nor  hail  nor  rain  nor 
dew,  neither  moon  nor  night  nor  dawn,  neither 
shining  nor  brightness  nor  light,  save  only  the  splen- 
dor of  the  glory  of  the  Most  High,  whereby  all  shall 
see  the  things  that  are  set  before  them:  for  it  shall 
endure  as  it  were  a  week  of  years.* 

Interesting  is  Baruch's  conception  of  the 
final     resurrection."      To     Baruch's     query 


88  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

whether  the  dead  will  rise  ag-ain  in  the  same 
form  which  they  had  when  they  were  buried, 
God  replied  that 

the  earth  will  then  assuredly  restore  the  dead, 
which  it  now  receives,  in  order  to  preserve  them, 
making  no  change  in  their  form,  but,  as  it  has  re- 
ceived, so  will  it  restore  them,  and  as  I  delivered 
them  unto  it,  so  also  will  it  raise  them.  For  then 
it  will  be  necessary  to  show  to  the  living  that  the 
dead  have  come  to  life  again,  and  that  those  who 
have  departed  have  returned.  And  it  will  come  to 
pass  when  they  have  severally  recognized  those  whom 
they  now  know,  then  judgment  will  grow  strong, 
and  those  things  which  before  were  spoken  of  will 
come. 

After  this  recognition,  the  bodies  of  the 
righteous  will  be  transformed  into  a  spiritual 
existence  "  of  unending  duration  and  glory," 
but  those  of  the  ungodly  will  dwindle  and 
become  uglier  than  before,  and  then  be  given 
to  torment."  This  idea,  that  the  dead  will 
rise  in  the  form  they  had  when  buried,  was 
later  developed  at  great  length  both  in  Juda- 
ism and  in  Christianity.  An  opinion  in  the 
Talmud  "  has  it,  that  at  the  resurrection  the 
righteous  dead  will  rise  in  the  very  clothes 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  89 

in  which  they  were  buried — a  beHef  that 
led  Rabban  Gamahel  II  to  introduce  the  use 
of  cotton  shrouds,  because  of  the  practice  of 
expending-  large  sums  of  money  on  costly 
burial  garments. 

While  the  small  band  of  scholars  in  Jabne, 
under  the  leadership  of  Gamaliel  II,  were 
occupied  with  the  work  of  organizing  and 
establishing  institutions  of  learning,  and 
were  concerning  themselves  with  the  minu- 
tiae of  ceremonial  observances  or  the  su- 
premacy of  one  or  the  other  authority  in  the 
Sanhedrin,  warfare  was  waged  by  the  Jews 
of  the  provinces  of  Cyprus,  Cyrene,  and 
Egypt  against  the  cruelties  of  the  emperors 
Trajan  and  Hadrian.  When  the  dissension 
spread  to  Palestine,  the  smouldering  hope 
for  redemption  was  fanned  into  a  blaze  by 
the  appearance  of  Simeon  Bar-Cochba,  who 
by  his  prowess  and  physical  strength  won 
many  battles.  Notwithstanding  the  entrea- 
ties and  admonitions  of  the  older  and  more 
sober  of  the  nation,  he  was  hailed  as  Mes- 


90  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

siah  by  many/'  The  belief  in  his  Messiah- 
ship  was  shared  even  by  the  great  and  influ- 
ential teacher  Rabbi  Akiba,"  despite  the 
taunts  of  his  contemporaries,  one  of  whom 
said  to  him,  "  Grass  will  grow  out  of  thy 
chin,  Akiba,  before  the  King  Messiah  will 
appear. 

The  Talmudic  accounts  mention  no  mirac- 
ulous performances  attending  Bar-Cochba's 
appearance.  They  dwell  mainly  on  his 
enormous  physical  strength  and  the  strength 
of  his  soldiers,  some  of  whom  performed  the 
feat  of  tearing  out  a  cedar  of  Lebanon  by 
its  roots  while  riding  at  full  speed.  He 
himself  is  said  to  have  hurled  back,  with  his 
knees,  stones  discharged  by  the  Roman  bal- 
listse. 

Although  no  doubt  sincere  and  unselfish 
in  his  undertaking,  Bar-Cochba  was  branded 
as  an  impostor  by  most  of  the  sages,"  the 
leaders  of  thought  and  action  of  that  period. 
After  many  struggles  and  some  glorious 
triumphs,  he  finally  fell  a  victim  to  Roman 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  9^ 

cruelty.  Since  the  belief  in  Bar-Cochba's 
Messiahship  was  not  shared  by  the  learned 
classes,  his  defeat  gave  no  set-back  to  the  - 
development  of  the  Messianic  hope,  and 
Messianic  speculation  continued.  Every 
scholar  endeavored  to  find  in  Biblical  pas- 
sages some  hint  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Mes- 
siah, or  the  date  of  his  arrival,  seeking  in  its 
discussion  a  pleasant  digression  from  the 
laborious  and  taxing  studies  of  the  law. 

We  find  very  little  about  the  Messianic 
hope  among  the  sayings  of  the  first  genera- 
tion of  Tannaim.  Living  still  under  a  quasi- 
Jewish  Government,  with  some  semblance  of 
political  independence,  the  teachers  of  the 
period  preceding  the  destruction  of  the  Tem- 
ple devoted  their  energies  to  the  inculcation 
and  propagation  of  the  law,  or  to  setting 
aright  the  political  difficulties  and  party 
strifes  of  the  time.  Unlike  their  lay  breth- 
ren, the  writers  of  the  apocalypses,  the  Rab- 
bis speculated  but  little  on  the  miraculous  ad- 
vent of  a  God-sent  king.     Hillel  and  Sham- 


THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


mai,  who  contributed  so  much  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Jewish  institutions,  have  almost 
nothing  to  say  about  this  great  hope  of  the 
Jews."  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  how- 
ever, when  Jabne  became  the  centre  of  Jew- 
ish activities,  and  subsequently  throughout 
the  exile,  the  Messianic  hope  finds  expres- 
sion in  the  teachings  of  almost  every  Rabbi. 
Rabbi  Johanan  ben  Zakkai,  the  organizer 
and  chief  of  the  first  Sanhedrin  at  Jabne, 
told  his  pupils,  before  his  death,  to  have  a 
throne  ready  for  Hezekiah,  son  of  David, 
who  was  about  to  come."  This  shows  how 
intense  the  hope  was  even  at  that  early 
period,  and  how  positive  the  leaders  of  the 
people  were  of  its  speedy  realization. 

In  my  endeavor  to  reconstruct  the  Messi- 
anic conception  of  the  Rabbis  of  the  Talmud 
and  of  the  earlier  Midrashim,  I  prefer  to  fol- 
low the  natural  divisions  of  the  subject  as  a 
whole,  rather  than  adhere  to  the  historic 
method  hitherto  pursued.  Aside  from  the 
difficulties  attendant  upon  the  attempt  to  de- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  93 

termine  the  authors  of  the  various  sayings, 
there  is  this  to  be  considered,  that  to  the  pop- 
ular mind  the  Tahnud  means  one  book,  one 
tendency.  Since  this  is  to  be  a  popular  pre- 
sentation of  the  subject,  I  think  it  advisable 
to  classify  the  sayings  of  the  Rabbis  with 
regard  to  the  Messiah,  not  in  accordance 
with  any  chronological  order,  but  rather  in 
accordance  with  the  divisions  of  the  subject 
under  consideration,  always  endeavoring  to 
correlate  the  opinions  of  the  various  Rabbis 
with  the  historic  events. 

The  conceptions  of  the  Talmudic  authors 
of  the  genealogy,  personality,  and  activity  of 
the  Messiah  and  his  forerunner  Elijah  are 
so  varied  and  of  such  interest  as  to  warrant 
literal  quotation,  if  their  number  did  not 
preclude  it.  I  must  content  myself  with 
merely  gleaning  the  important  ideas  from 
this  bewildering  mass  of  fanciful  specula- 
tion, leaving  the  reader  to  consult  the  sources 
himself,  guided  by  the  notes  to  this  chapter 
at  the  end  of  the  book. 


94  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Like  the  early  prophets  and  the  later  apo- 
calyptic writers,"  the  Rabbis  also  taught  that 
the  Messianic  period  will  be  preceded  by 
many  tribulations,  called  "Messianic  woes,"" 
not  only  for  Israel,  but  for  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth  as  well.  These  trials  preliminary 
to  the  advent  of  the  Messianic  era  will  be  of 
all  kinds,  social  and  political  both.  Ac- 
cording to  these  teachings,  there  will  be  an 
increase  in  drunkenness  and  immorality. 
Youths  will  no  longer  respect  their  parents, 
the  pious,  and  the  aged.  All  family  ties  will 
be  loosed,  and  poverty  will  be  the  portion  of 
many."""  "  Wait  for  him,"  says  Rabbi  Jo- 
hanan,  "  when  you  see  the  generations 
growing  smaller,  and  many  troubles  coming 
upon  Israel."  ^  Judges  and  officers  of  the 
law  will  have  no  authority,  denunciators  will 
multiply,  anarchy  will  reign  supreme.''''  Even 
among  the  sages  themselves  there  will  be 
constant  strife.''^  The  law  will  no  longer  be 
studied.  Those  that  fear  sin  will  be  des- 
pised, and  the  house  of  public  convention  will 
become  a  house  of  harlots.'* 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  95 


The  gloomy  picture  of  the  days  preceding 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah  darkened  with 
Israel's  persecutions.  Rabbi  Judah,  who 
lived  soon  after  the  Bar-Cochba  revolution, 
and  witnessed  the  outrages  practiced  on  his 
people  by  the  legions  of  Hadrian,  endeav- 
ored, by  his  terrifying  description  of  the 
times  preceding  the  Messianic  age,''  to  sus- 
tain the  smouldering  hope  of  the  people  for 
a  speedy  redemption.  So  horrible  was  the 
common  conception  that  some  of  the  Rab- 
bis prayed  that  the  Messiah  might  not  ap- 
pear in  their  days.'^  Good  deeds  and  repent- 
ance, however,  were  supposed  to  relieve  the 
pangs  of  the  Messianic  age." 

The  fanciful  element  is  very  strong  in  the 
stories  of  the  wars  waged  against  Israel  by 
the  legendary  nations  of  the  North,  Gog 
and  Magog."^  After  attacking  Jerusalem 
for  twelve  months,"^  it  is  said  they  will  suf- 
fer a  crushing  defeat.'"  In  this  struggle,  the 
Messiah  son  of  Joseph,^  that  obscure  figure 
in  the  Talmudic  Haggadah,  will  be  killed,'' 


96  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

but  he  will  be  restored  to  life  again  by  Eli- 
jah, the  forerunner  of  the  Messiah,  who  will 
play  an  important  part  in  the  Messianic  age. 
His  activities  will  include  the  adjustment  of 
all  matters  of  law  and  Biblical  interpreta- 
tion,'' the  correction  of  all  genealogical  rec- 
ords which  become  confused  in  the  course 
of  time,'*  the  slaying  of  Samael,  the  Satan, 
the  prime  mover  of  all  evil,^  and  the  per- 
formance of  seven  miracles.'*  He  will  es- 
pecially be  instrumental  in  bringing  Israel  to 
genuine  repentance  and  in  establishing  peace 
among  all  classes,  and  turning  the  hearts  of 
fathers  and  children  to  each  other."  Then 
a  world  sick  of  sin  and  misery,  at  last  de- 
voted to  God  in  truth,  will  hear  the  trumpet 
of  the  archangel  Michael  announce  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messiah. 

The  Talmudic  conception  of  tlie  person  of 
the  Messiah  is,  on  the  whole,  of  a  man,  a 
scion  of  the  Davidic  dynasty,^  Divine  only 
in  the  greatness  of  his  natural  gifts,''  through 
whom  the  heathen  nations  shall  be  destroyed 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  97 

and  Israel  become  the  world-power.  Rabbi 
Akiba  was  rebuked  by  Rabbi  Jose  the  Gali- 
lean for  "  profaning  the  Divine  presence  " 
by  teaching  that  the  Messiah  occupies  a 
throne  alongside  of  God.*"  It  is  interesting 
to  note  a  significant  passage  evidently  di- 
rected against  some  current  Christian  doc- 
trine :  "  Rabbi  Abbahu  says,  If  a  man  tells 
thee,  *  I  am  God,'  he  lies ;  *  I  am  the  son  of 
God,'  he  will  at  last  repent  it;  *I  will  as- 
cend to  heaven,'  though  he  have  said  it,  he 
will  not  prove  it."  "^  Another  legend,  prob- 
ably of  political  significance,  is  related  by 
Rabbi  Joshua  ben  Levi,  how,  at  the  direction 
of  Elijah,  he  found  the  Messiah  at  the  gate 
of  Rome,  sitting  among  the  poor,  the  sick, 
and  the  crippled,  ready  to  make  his  appear- 
ance when  the  Divine  summons  came  to 
him.*''  Midrashic  fancy  goes  so  far  as  to 
imagine  the  north  and  south  winds  quarrel- 
ling as  to  the  right  to  bring  the  scattered 
tribes  to  Palestine."  The  future  restoration 
will  be  complete,  including  also  the  lost  Ten 


98  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Tribes,  and  Rabbi  Akiba,  who  ventured  the 
opinion  that  these  will  never  return,  was 
severely  rebuked  by  his  companions."  Not 
all,  however,  will  reach  Jerusalem.  Accord- 
ing to  one  opinion,  only  two  out  of  every  six 
hundred  thousand  will  enter  Palestine." 

An  important  feature  in  the  Haggadic 
conception  of  the  Messianic  time  is  the  idea 
of  political  independence.""  This  was  an  ar- 
dent hope  among  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora. 
Samuel,  one  of  the  earlier  Amoraim,  de- 
clared, that  political  freedom  will  be  the  only 
difference  between  the  Messianic  and  the 
present  time.*'  Other  Rabbis,  possessed  of 
a  more  fanciful  imagination,  saw  Egypt, 
Ethiopia,  and  Ishmael  as  tributary  nations, 
carrying  gifts  to  the  King  Messiah."* 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  the 
Rabbis  as  to  the  conversion  of  the  gentiles  in 
the  Messianic  age.  Some  were  of  the  opin- 
ion that  no  converts  would  be  accepted,  as 
they  were  not  accepted  in  the  days  of  David 
and  Solomon,"  because  the  desire  for  the 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  99 

ideal  happiness  of  that  period,  rather  than  a 
sincere  acceptance  of  the  principles  of  Juda- 
ism, might  induce  the  conversions.  Others 
thought  that  the  wish  of  all  gentiles  to  be 
received  into  the  Jewish  fold  would  be  real- 
ized, although  with  difficulty.  The  second 
Psalm  is  interpreted  by  the  Rabbis  as  refer- 
ring to  the  scene  when  all  the  nations  shall 
come  before  God,  each  trying  to  obtain  a 
share  in  the  glories  of  the  ensuing  period,  by 
extenuating  their  idolatrous  worship  and 
belief,  dwelling  on  Israel's  own  sins,  and  en- 
deavoring to  show  that  Israel  had  not  acted 
much  better  toward  the  Divine  law  than  the 
other  peoples  of  the  earth.  God  will  then 
put  them  to  the  test,  and  they  will  be  unable 
to  stand  it.  They  will  even  be  found  want- 
ing in  the  observance  of  one  of  the  simplest 
of  the  Biblical  commandments.'" 

Although  the  final  judgment  will  also  in- 
clude Israel,'"  God  will  deal  more  leniently 
with  it  than  with  the  gentiles.  One  of  the 
names  given  the  Messiah  is  Hadrak,  which 


lOO  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

means  "  sharp-mild,"  that  is,  he  will  be 
harsh  with  the  gentiles  and  gentle  with  the 
Israelites/'' 

Following  the  pictures  drawn  by  Isaiah 
and  other  earlier  writers,  the  Rabbis  con- 
ceived the  Jerusalem  of  the  future  to  be  mar- 
vellously constructed,  lifted  from  its  present 
position  to  the  height  of  ten  parasangs,  open 
on  all  sides,  and  extending  to  the  gates  of 
Damascus ;  ^^  the  Temple  rebuilt  in  splendor 
and  magnificence,"  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
Tabernacle  restored,  and  Aaron  and  his  de- 
scendants ministering  under  the  direction  of 
Moses."  Some  of  the  Amoraim  were  of  the 
opinion  that  in  the  Messianic  time  there  will 
be  no  sacrifices,  except  the  thank-offering, 
and  no  regular  prayers,  except  the  prayer  of 
thanksgiving/'  In  the  Talmudim  and  the 
Midrashim,  although  there  are  occasional 
references  to  a  new  law  to  be  revealed  by 
the  Messiah,"  it  is  usually  taken  for  granted 
that  all  the  precepts  and  injunctions  of  the 
old  law  will  be  strictly  observed.     Almost  all 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  lOI 

the  references  to  a  new  law  can  easily  be  in- 
terpreted to  refer  to  a  new  covenant  to  be 
made  for  a  stricter  observance  of  the  old 
law."^ 

The  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  the  res- 
urrection of  the  dead  at  the  end  of  days,  is 
insisted  upon  by  the  Rabbis,  although  there 
seems  to  be  no  clear  and  definite  idea  as  to 
the  details  of  the  phenomenon.  The  privi- 
lege of  resurrection  was  accorded  by  some 
Rabbis  to  all  the  dead,"  by  others  to  Israel- 
ites only,""  and,  again,  to  only  those  Israel- 
ites that  were  righteous,  or  learned  in  the 
law,  or  supported  the  scholars  of  the  law,"'  or 
to  those,  according  to  one  opinion,  who  ob- 
served at  least  one  of  the  commandments  of 
the  Torah/^  The  Mishnah  refuses  a  portion 
in  the  world  to  come  to  those  who  deny  that 
the  promise  of  resurrection  is  contained  in 
the  Bible." 

Since  the  resurrection  is  to  take  place  in 
Jerusalem,  those  buried  elsewhere  will  be 
compelled  to  make  their  way  to  the  Holy 


I02  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Land  through  underground  passages  pre- 
pared for  them.  This  was  the  reason  why 
Jacob  and  Joseph  wished  to  be  buried  in 
Palestine,  so  that  they  might  be  spared  the 
long  journey  at  the  time  of  resurrection.''* 
Because  of  this  belief,  many  Jews  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  on  reaching  an  advanced  age,  make 
their  home  in  Palestine.  According  to  one 
opinion,  there  will  be  no  dying  after  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messiah.*" 

There  are,  in  Rabbinic  literature,  a  few 
references  to  a  feast  to  be  prepared  for  the 
righteous  at  the  end  of  days.  The  banquet 
is  to  consist  of  Leviathan  killed  during  the 
first  days  of  creation  and  preserved  for  the 
purpose,'"  of  a  tremendous  ox  "  lying  on  a 
thousand  mountains  and  fed  on  the  produce 
of  a  thousand  mountains," "  and  of  wine 
kept  in  the  grapes  since  the  creation  of  the 
world.''  This  materialistic  view  went  so  far 
as  to  consider,  that  the  ox  would  be  regarded 
ritually  fit  for  food  after  having  been  pierced 
by  the  scales  of  Leviathan  in  a  deadly  strug- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  103 

gle,  and  that  the  feast  would  be  served  only 
to  those  who  had  observed  the  dietary  laws.'" 

Although  this  materialistic  view  became 
popular,  and  later  gave  rise  to  many  legends, 
we  also  find  more  exalted  and  more  spiritual 
opinions,  which  were  later  adopted  by  the 
more  rational  school  of  Jewish  thinkers,  fol- 
lowing Maimonides.  A  fanciful  imagina- 
tion, however,  was  not  to  be  checked  by  ra- 
tional philosophy.  The  Rabbinic  pictures  of 
the  Messianic  age  were  taken  literally  by 
many  generations  of  Jews,  who  even  believed 
in  the  poetic  conception  of  Rabban  Gamaliel, 
that  the  Palestinian  soil  would  produce  cakes 
and  silk  dresses,  the  trees  of  Palestine  would 
bear  fruit  continuously,  and  Jewish  women 
would  give  birth  to  children  every  day.'" 

There  was  equally  great  uncertainty  and 
variety  in  the  Rabbinic  theories  as  to  the 
date  of  the  arrival  of  the  Messiah.  An  un- 
limited number  of  extravagant  opinions,  ex- 
pressed with  calm  certainty,  are  based  upon 
time-honored  traditions  and  mystic  calcula- 


I04  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

tion.  There  was  an  old  belief  that  the  world 
would  exist  for  six  thousand  years,  and  be- 
come waste  during  the  seventh  thousand,  the 
thousands  corresponding  in  number  to  the 
days  of  creation.  The  first  two  thousand 
years  were  considered  as  waste  (Tohu),  i.  e. 
without  a  revelation;  the  second  two  thou- 
sand as  law  (Torah),  i,  e,  with  a  revelation, 
and  the  third  two  thousand  as  the  days  dur- 
ing which  the  Messiah  may  be  expected 
(Yemoth  ha-Mashiah)."  The  prophet  Eli- 
jah, who  is  made  responsible  for  much  specu- 
lation, as  a  result  of  the  belief  in  his  fre- 
quent revelations  to  the  Rabbis,  divulged  to 
one  of  the  Amoraim,  that  the  son  of  David 
would  come  after  the  eighty-fifth  jubilee 
(4250  years).  In  a  manuscript,  supposed  to 
have  come  from  Rome,  one  of  the  Rabbis 
found  it  written,  that  after  4291  (4231?) 
years  since  the  Creation,  the  world  would 
become  orphaned,  some  of  the  following 
years  would  be  occupied  with  the  wars  of  the 
crocodiles,  others  with  the  wars  of  Gog  and 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  105 


Magog,  and  the  rest  would  be  the  Messianic 
days,  but  God  would  not  renew  His  world 
until  the  besfinninof  of  the  seventh  millen- 


nium." 


Rabbi  Hanina  said,  "  If,  after  four  hun- 
dred years  since  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, one  should  offer  a  field  worth  a  thou- 
sand denarii  for  one  denar,  do  not  buy  it, 
for  the  Messiah  will  soon  come,  when  you 
will  get  it  for  nothing.""  Most  of  these 
speculations  having  reference  to  the  mystic 
numbers  seven  and  forty  were  based  on  the 
mysterious  passages  in  Daniel  xii. 

When  many  of  these  appointed  periods 
had  passed,  and  the  Messiah  did  not  appear, 
the  Rabbis  discouraged  such  calculations. 
They  made  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  de- 
pendent on  the  good  deeds  of  the  people." 
One  Rabbi  even  pronounced  a  curse  upon 
those  who  speculate  upon  the  date  of  the 
Messiah ;  "  for,"  said  he,  "  if  their  calcula- 
tions should  prove  false,  the  people  will  des- 
pair of  his  coming  altogether.""    Two  of 


I06  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  conditions  God  was  believed  to  have 
made  with  Israel  were  that  Israel  should  not 
be  too  importunate  about  the  time  of  the  end, 
and  should  not  reveal  it."  It  is  related  that 
the  Divine  presence  departed  from  Jacob  be- 
cause he  wished  to  reveal  it  to  his  children 
before  his  death."  One  opinion  has  it,  that 
one  of  the  conditions  of  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  is  that  the  people  will  be  in  utter 
despair  about  redemption."  The  prevalent 
view  of  the  Rabbis  was  that  his  coming 
could  be  hastened  if  all  Israel  repented  of  its 
sins,  if  only  for  one  day."  He  will  come  as 
soon  as  all  Israelites  observe  two  Sabbaths,'" 
or  even  one  Sabbath,'"  with  all  the  details  of 
the  law.  It  was  generally  supposed  that  the 
Messiah  would  make  his  appearance  either  in 
the  month  of  Nisan  or  Tishri.'' 

Though  these  extravagant  pictures  of  the 
Messianic  age  and  of  the  person  of  the  Mes- 
siah were  not  always  meant  to  be  taken  lit- 
erally, nor  considered  by  the  people  as  bind- 
ing dogmas  of  faith,  still  they  exercised  a 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  107 

tremendous  influence  on  the  Jewish  concep- 
tion of  the  ardently-awaited  period.  Un- 
consciously, and  perhaps  against  the  wish  of 
the  teachers,  the  person  of  the  Messiah  was 
surrounded  with  a  halo  of  Divine  and  super- 
natural qualities,  and  the  age  of  his  coming 
was  associated  with  marvellous  deeds  and 
supermundane  beings.''  It  must  have  seemed 
to  the  unhappy  nation  that  mere  men  could 
accomplish  nothing,  and  the  belief  in  the 
supernatural  qualities  of  the  Messiah  grew 
as  the  distance  lengthened  between  the  ex- 
iled nation  and  the  days  of  its  former 
splendor. 

When  the  Roman  Emperor  Julian,  known 
in  the  Christian  chronicles  as  the  Apostate, 
ordered  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  in  Je- 
rusalem (362),  his  kindly  efforts,  though 
greatly  appreciated,  were  unsuccessful, 
mainly  because  of  the  scant  enthusiasm 
shown  by  the  Jews.**  They  could  not  ima- 
gine that  the  Temple  could  be  rebuilt  without 
the  miracles  and  wonders  described  by  the 


Io8  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Rabbis,  and  they  were,  therefore,  unwilHng 
to  rely  on  the  temporary  kindness  of  a  Ro- 
man Emperor.  There  may  be  truth  in  the 
stories  current  in  the  ancient  chronicles,  that 
the  Emperor  had  amply  provided  for  the 
whole  cost  of  the  building-,  that  the  distant 
Jewish  communities  had  forwarded  large 
sums  of  money  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple,  and  that  women  had  sold  their 
jewelry  and  brought  stones  in  their  gar- 
ments, but  the  fact  that  there  is  no  mention 
of  this  in  contemporaneous  Jewish  litera- 
ture *"  proves  the  little  heed  paid  to  Julian's 
magnanimous  offer  by  the  majority  of  the 
Jews.  They  expected  a  Messiah  who  would 
substantiate  his  claim  to  his  title  by  a  series 
of  miracles,  and  whose  advent  would  be  pre- 
ceded and  accompanied  by  a  large  number  of 
wonderful  phenomena. 

Many  misfortunes  would  have  been  pre- 
vented, many  blood-stained  pages  of  our  his- 
tory would  have  been  left  unwritten,  if  the 
Rabbinic  injunction  against  calculating  the 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  109 

date  of  the  Messiah's  appearance  had  been 
heeded.  As  it  was,  the  arrival  of  every  date 
suggested  by  one  or  the  other  of  the  Rabbis 
caused  general  excitement  among  the  people. 
At  such  times  there  was  never  wanting  an 
impostor  or  a  self-deluded  dreamer  to  come 
forward  and  take  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunity, and  thereby  bring  misery  and  horror 
upon  thousands.  In  accordance  with  an 
ancient  tradition  of  which  mention  has  been 
made  above,  the  Messiah  was  to  come  in  the 
eighty-fifth  jubilee,  or  between  4200  and 
4250  A.  M.  (440-490  C.  E.).  When  this 
period  arrived,  the  expectation  of  a  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  strength- 
ened by  the  favor  shown  them  by  Jezdijird, 
a  monarch  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Per- 
sia (400-420),  and  by  the  continuous  misfor- 
tunes that  befell  Rome,  the  mortal  enemy  of 
Judea,  from  that  time  until  its  downfall  in 
476. 

The  hope  became  still  stronger,  when  an 
enthusiast  by  the  name  of  Moses  arose  in 


no  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  Island  of  Crete,  or  Candia,  declared  him- 
self the  Messiah,  and  attracted  all  the  Jew- 
ish congregations  of  the  island,  which  was 
then  an  important  Jewish  settlement.  Busi- 
ness was  neglected,  all  the  common  pursuits 
of  life  were  forsaken,  in  the  anxious  expec- 
tation of  the  time  when  the  new  Moses 
should  lead  them  dry-shod  through  the  sea 
into  the  Promised  Land.  So  convinced  were 
the  people  of  his  mission  and  of  his  powers, 
that  they  delivered  all  their  belongings  to 
him,  and  men,  women,  and  children  followed 
him  to  the  sea.  Standing  on  a  promontory 
projecting  into  the  sea,  he  ordered  them  to 
throw  themselves  into  the  ocean,  as  the 
waters  would  surely  part  for  them.  The  re- 
sult can  easily  'be  imagined — many  were 
drowned,  some  were  rescued  by  sailors.  The 
Christian  chronicler'"  who  is  the  authority 
for  this  account  adds  that  many  of  the  Jews 
of  Crete  subsequently  embraced  Christianity. 
As  a  result  of  this  unfortunate  incident. 
Rabbi  Ashi,  one  of  the  last  of  the  Amoralm, 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  III 

and  famous  as  one  of  the  compilers  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  thus  interpreted  the  old 
tradition :  "  Do  not  hope  for  the  Messiah  be- 
fore the  completion  of  eighty-five  jubilees 
from  the  creation  of  the  world.  After  the 
lapse  of  that  period  you  may  begin  to  enter- 
tain hopes  of  his  coming." "  Thus  the 
Jews,  whom  the  magnanimous  offer  of  a  Ro- 
man emperor  left  incredulous,  were  deluded 
by  the  fancies  of  an  enthusiast  or  by  the 
snares  of  an  impostor,  merely  because  he 
promised  them  miracles. 

However,  it  must  be  conceded  that  it  was 
due  to  these  extravagant  and  fanciful  details 
that  the  hope  survived  in  the  hearts  of  the 
Jews  during  the  dark  ages,  darkest  for  the 
luifortunate  Jews.  Since  the  belief  was  that 
the  Messianic  period  would  be  preceded  by 
many  misfortunes  and  perplexities  for  Israel, 
the  inference  was  that  the  greater  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  enemy,  the  more  cruel  the  atti- 
tude of  the  ruler,  the  sooner  will  the  Messiah 
{:pme.     The  extraordinary  events  accompa- 


112  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


nying  his  coming,  such  as  the  wars  of  the 
nations  and  the  arrival  of  EHjah  to  prepare 
the  people  for  his  appearance,  prevented 
many  impostors  from  declaring  themselves 
Messiahs.  The  confidence  of  the  people  as 
a  whole  could  not  be  gained  unless  all  the 
details  prescribed  by  the  Rabbis  were  com- 
plied with.  Compared  with  the  many  troub- 
lous years  the  Jews  passed  during  the  middle 
ages,  the  number  of  false  Messiahs  that  arose 
from  time  to  time  is  surprisingly  small. 

The  magnificent  pictures  of  the  future 
kingdom,  the  glorious  position  of  Israel,  the 
vengeance  the  Messiah  would  wreak  upon  all 
of  Israel's  enemies,  and  the  vision  of  the  re- 
stored Jerusalem  and  the  rebuilt  Temple, 
were  a  constant  consolation  to  the  oppressed 
and  downtrodden  Israelites.  They  fondled 
the  hope  with  intense  afifection,  the  mother 
sang  it  to  her  babe,  the  father  on  all  occa- 
sions related  it  to  his  household,  the  teacher 
impressed  it  upon  the  minds  and  hearts  of  his 
pupils — all  were  invigorated  by  the  assur- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  1 13 

ance  to  suffer  and  hope,  to  withstand  the  on- 
slaughts of  the  enemy,  and  remain  faithful 
to  their  religion.  The  feeling  of  the  ancient 
Jew  toward  his  persecutor  was  not  so  much 
one  of  hatred  and  revenge  as  of  sneering 
pity.  Even  while  on  the  rack,  undergoing 
the  most  excruciating  pains  at  the  hands  of 
the  executioner,  we  can  imagine  the  pious 
Jew  of  old  thinking  to  himself :  "  I  suffer 
now,  but  what  is  this  suffering  when  com- 
pared with  the  bliss  and  glory  that  await  me 
in  the  future?  I  may  die  from  the  wounds 
inflicted  upon  me,  but  I  shall  live  again  when 
the  Messiah  comes  and  restores  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  to  its  ancient  glory.  All  these  in- 
quisitors, judges,  and  executioners  will  then 
stand  at  my  door  begging  for  admittance. 
All  the  nations  of  the  earth  will  then  be  my 
servants,  anxious  to  be  the  subjects  of  the 
King  Messiah.  They  do  not  see  it  now,  but 
I  see  and  believe  and  hope,  and  hence  can 
die  in  peace.'' 


CHAPTER  IV 
The  Rise  of  Rationalism 

Spread  of  Mohammedanism — The  Geonim  and  their 
Influence — Rabbinic  Authority  questioned  by  the 
Arabic  Jews — The  Messiah  to  lighten  the  Yoke 
of  Rabbinism — Serene  of  Syria  advocates  Laxity 
in  the  Law — Abu-Isa  of  Ispahan  opposes  the 
Abbassides — "  The  Mysteries  of  Rabbi  Simeon 
ben  Johai" — Rise  of  Karaism — Incentive  to  a 
Rational  Study  of  the  Bible — Judah  Judghan — 
Jewish  Religious  Philosophy — Saadia  Gaon  and 
his  Rational  Views  on  the  Messianic  Beliefs — 
On  the  Resurrection — He  accounts  for  Israel's 
Trials — Two  Possible  Periods  of  Redemption — 
Saadia  on  the  Date  of  the  Messiah — Hai  Gaon 
— Abraham  Albargeloni's  Universalism — "  The 
Book  of  Zerubbabel " — The  Mother  of  the  Mes- 
siah— Jehudah  Halevi — Patriotic  Spirit  in  his 
Poems — "  The  Kuzari " — Israel  the  Heart  of  the 
World — The  Mission  of  Israel — David  Alrui — 
Moses  Maimonides — The  Messianic  Belief  an 
Article  of  Faith — Maimonides  takes  Rabbinic 
Exaggerations  figuratively — The  Greatest  Bless- 
ing of  the  Future — His  Belief  in  the  Resur- 
rection not  Definite — Hasdai  Crescas  and  Joseph 
Albo — Their  Theory^  of  the  Resurrection — 
Rationalistic  Conceptions  not  universally  ac- 
cepted— Still  wield  a  Potent  Influence. 

While  the  Byzantine  Court  was  busily 
engaged  in  paganizing  Christianity  and 
strengthening  an  ecclesiasticism  intolerant  of 
learning  and  every  other  competing  force,  a 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         1 15 

mighty  power  was  growing  up  in  the  East, 
which  was  destined  to  wield  its  relentless 
sword  over  the  followers  of  the  religion  of 
Paul  and  Constantine,  and  destroy  the  great 
and  cruel  Christian  power  of  the  Orient. 
Weakened  by  degeneracy  within  and  the  re- 
peated onslaughts  of  Vandal  and  Goth,  the 
Christian  empire  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  war- 
like, zealous,  and  fanatic  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed. For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  the 
Koran  would  entirely  displace  the  Christian 
Bible,  as  if  Mecca  would  succeed  Jerusalem, 
Rome,  and  Constantinople.  Not  content 
with  the  conquest  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the 
sons  of  the  desert  directed  their  gaze  toward 
Europe,  and  with  the  Arabs  of  those  days 
desiring  a  thing  was  almost  synonymous 
with  obtaining  it.  Aided  by  the  Jewish  in- 
habitants of  Spain,  who  had  been  made  the 
target  of  monkish  superstition  and  royal 
greed,  they  succeeded  in  establishing  them- 
selves on  the  Peninsula,  whence  they  began 
new  operations,  with  a  view  to  exterminat- 


Il6  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

ing  the  whole  Christian  world.  For  almost 
eight  centuries,  Islam  kept  a  foothold  in 
Spain,  and  its  adherents  exerted  a  potent  in- 
fluence upon  European  civilization. 

At  first  the  crescent  offered  the  Jews  no 
better  protection  than  the  cross.  Omar's  de- 
crees were  directed  against  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians alike.  The  later  Caliphs,  however, 
treated  the  Jews  with  great  consideration, 
and  regarded  them  as  the  equals  of  the  Mos- 
lems. They  appeared  to  the  Jews  to  be  their 
liberators  from  the  Christian  yoke.  Under 
the  fourth  Caliph,  Ali  (656-661),  the  Jews 
of  Babylon  enjoyed  a  considerable  amount  of 
freedom.  The  Exilarchate,  which  was  then 
held  by  Bostanai,  and  the  Gaonate,  under 
Mar  Isaac,  were  officially  recognized  by  him. 

The  Geonim  exerted  great  influence  upon 
the  development  of  Judaism  in  the  Diaspora, 
the  Gaonates  of  Sora  and  of  Pumbedita 
holding  the  same  position  as  the  Sanhedrin 
of  Jabne  had  held  soon  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.     The  Talmud  was  already  a 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         1 17 

recognized  authority,  of  almost  equal  im- 
portance with  the  Bible,  and  the  Geonim  ex- 
pounded its  laws  and  precepts  with  a  view 
to  their  practical  application,  as  the  Amo- 
raim  had  expounded  the  Mishnah  and  the 
Tannaim  the  Bible.  They  were  accorded 
the  greatest  reverence  by  almost  all  the 
Jews  of  the  Orient.  Questions  in  law  were 
addressed  to  them  for  decision  by  Jews  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  who  submitted  to  their 
authority  unreservedly.  This  power  of  in- 
terpreting Talmudic  legal  precepts  was  sup- 
plemented by  the  power  of  introducing  new 
institutions,  punishing  offenders,  and  regu- 
lating worship  and  the  liturgy. 

The  Arabian  Jews  were  the  first  to  ques- 
tion the  supreme  authority  of  the  Rabbinic 
law,  as  interpreted  by  the  Geonim.  It  was 
probably  their  intercourse  with  the  cultured 
Arabs  that  produced  an  intellectual  inde- 
pendence unknown  to  their  co-religionists 
living  in  less  favored  circumstances.  Re- 
spect for  Talmudic  authority  weakened  in 


Ii8  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

proportion  to  their  greater  familiarity  with 
the  Bible  and  their  recognition  of  the  Inher- 
ent weakness  of  the  foundations  upon  which 
many  of  the  Rabbinic  institutions  were 
based.  A  large  number  of  them  rejected 
Talmudic  Judaism,  acknowledging  the  au- 
thority of  the  Bible  alone.  Later,  the  spirit 
of  rebellion  against  the  Rabbinic  authority 
became  stronger  and  more  pronounced,  until, 
after  the  lapse  of  two  centuries,  a  party  was 
formed  which  separated  itself  from  Rabbin- 
ism  and  eventually  from  Judaism,  and  Is 
now  lost  to  the  Jewish  people. 

The  burden  of  Rabbinism  was  considered 
so  oppressive  by  these  early  dissenters  that 
they  reckoned  it  among  the  ills  from  which 
they  hoped  to  be  delivered  by  the  Messiah, 
who  was  expected  to  remove  all  evils  from 
the  house  of  Israel.  The  prevalence  of  the 
Messianic  hope  was  taken  advantage  of  by  a 
bold  adventurer,  Serene  of  Syria,  or  Irak 
(about  720).  He  proclaimed  himself  the 
Messiah  who  would  expel  the  Mohamme- 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         1 19 

dans  from  the  Holy  Land,  and  restore  the 
Jews  to  their  ancient  inheritance.  As  the 
first  work  of  redemption,  he  set  about  abol- 
ishing Talmudic  ordinances,  changing  the 
ritual,  disregarding  the  dietary  laws  and  the 
observance  of  the  second  days  of  the  holi- 
days, permitting  the  use  of  wine  that  had 
been  touched  by  a  non-Jew,  neglecting  the 
details  of  the  preparation  of  marriage  con- 
tracts (Kethuboth)  and  of  bills  of  divorce 
(Gittin),  and  even  allowing  intermarriage 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  consanguin- 
ity and  affinity.  Serene's  hostile  attitude  to- 
ward Rabbinism  secured  for  him  a  large 
following,  and  his  fame  so  spread  through- 
out Jewry  that  even  the  Jews  of  distant 
Spain  were  ready  to  abandon  their  property 
and  their  possessions  and  follow  the  lead  of 
the  Messiah.  His  glory  was  short-lived. 
He  was  captured  by  the  officers  of  the  Ca- 
liph Yezid,  and,  admitting  that  he  was  mak- 
ing sport  of  the  credulous  Jews,  he  was 
handed  over  to  the  Jewish  authorities  for 


I20  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

punishment.  In  accordance  with  a  decree  of 
Rabbi  Natronai  Gaon,  his  adherents  were  re- 
admitted to  the  Jewish  community  after  pub- 
licly declaring  their  allegiance  to  the  precepts 
of  the  Talmud  and  suffering  flagellation,  a 
mild  punishment  considering  the  spirit  of 
the  age  and  the  unlimited  powers  of  the 
Gaonate.' 

An  exactly  opposite  policy  was  pursued 
by  another  false  Messiah,  Obayah  Abu-Isa 
ben  Ishak,  who  arose  three  decades  later  in 
the  Persian  town  of  Ispahan.  The  changes 
in  liturgy  and  observance  which  he  tried  to 
introduce  tended  rather  toward  increasing 
than  lessening  the  burden  of  the  Talmudic 
laws.  He  abolished  divorce,  even  in  the 
case  of  adultery,  prohibited  the  use  of  meat 
and  wine,  declared  himself  opposed  to  sacri- 
ficial worship,  and,  on  the  strength  of  a  pas- 
sage in  the  Psalms,*  established  seven  times 
of  daily  prayer  instead  of  the  accepted  three. 
He  found  many  adherents  among  the  Jews 
of  Persia,  ten  thousand  of  whom,  it  is  said,* 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         121 

were  ready  to  take  up  arms  at  his  command. 
According  to  one  authority,  Abu-Isa  con- 
sidered himself,  not  the  Messiah,  but  merely 
the  last  of  the  five  percursors  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  thought  it  was  his  mission  to  liber- 
ate the  Jews  by  means  of  the  sword."  The 
time  of  his  coming  was  most  propitious  for 
revolt.  It  was  then  that  the  Omeyyad  dy- 
nasty came  to  an  end  amidst  fierce  fighting. 
The  Mohammedan  world  was  in  the  throes 
of  a  terrible  revolution.  Abu-Isa  took  ad- 
vantage of  this  opportunity.  He  was  in  the 
very  thick  of  the  fight.  With  his  army  he 
went  to  the  camp  of  Abu  Sinbad,  the  antag- 
onist of  the  Abbassides.  The  defeat  of  Abu 
Sinbad  marked  his  own  fall. 

In  spite  of  the  many  miracles  he  is  said 
to  have  performed,"*  Abu-Isa  did  not  succeed 
in  making  himself  immortal,  and  his  follow- 
ers dispersed  after  his  death  in  battle  (755). 
But  his  memory  was  treasured  for  many 
years  by  his  adherents,  who  formed  them- 
selves into  a  sect,  the  first  Jewish  sect  since 


122  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Under  the  name  of 
Isavites  or  Ispahanltes,  it  existed  for  nearly 
three  centuries.  The  Isavites  followed  im- 
plicitly the  precepts  of  their  master,  and  con- 
sidered themselves  the  successors  of  the 
Rechabites,  who  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
as  an  ascetic  sect.  It  is  not  recorded  whether 
they  expected  Abu-Isa  to  appear  again.  In 
general  we  know  none  of  the  details  of  their 
Messianic  beliefs.  It  is,  however,  an  inter- 
esting fact  that  a  religious  sect,  the  basis  of 
whose  belief  was  the  Messianic  hope,  existed 
among  the  Jews  before  the  rise  of  Karaism. 
Anan  was  not  the  first  heretic  in  the  Syna- 
gogue. 

The  troublous  times  of  the  schism  and  re- 
bellion in  the  Mohammedan  camp  revived 
the  hope  for  a  Messiah  among  all  the  Jews 
under  the  rule  of  the  Caliphs.  Almost  con- 
temporaneous with  the  activity  of  Abu-Isa 
in  Persia  and  Babylon,  a  Messianic  apoca- 
lypse appeared  in  Palestine,  "  The  Mysteries 
of   Rabbi    Simeon    son    of   Johai."  ^      The 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         123 

angel  Metatron  is  made  to  reveal  to  the 
Tanna  Rabbi  Simeon  ben  Johai,  whose 
name  is  connected  with  a  number  of  mystical 
writings  of  various  ages  and  lands,  the  inci- 
dents which  will  occur  at  the  end  of  days. 
This  is  the  oldest  mystical  writing  of  the 
Geonic  period  in  which  contemporary  events 
are  made  the  basis  for  a  construction  of  the 
ideal  future.  To  the  Tanna's  vehement 
question,  "  Is  it  not  sufficient  that  we  had  to 
suffer  so  much  at  the  hands  of  Edom  (  Rome, 
Christians)  ?  Must  we  now  undergo  perse- 
cution also  under  the  rule  of  Ishmael  ( Arabs, 
Mohammedans)  ? "  The  angel  replies, 
"  Fear  not,  O  son  of  man,  for  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  He,  established  the  kingdom  of 
Ishmael  for  the  sole  purpose  of  redeeming 
thee  from  this  wicked  kingdom  (Edom). 
He  gave  them  a  prophet  in  accordance  with 
His  will,  and  this  prophet  conquered  the 
land  (Palestine),  and  they  will  return  it  (to 
Israel)  with  glory,  and  there  will  be  great 
hatred  (fear?)  between  them  and  the  sons 


124  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

of  Esau,"  and  the  angel  quotes  Biblical  pas- 
sages in  support  of  this  view. 

Then  follows  a  survey  of  the  history  of 
the  Caliphs  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  the 
last  of  the  Omeyyads,  when  the  Messiah  son 
of  Joseph  will  appear,  restore  the  Jews  to 
Palestine,  and  rebuild  the  Temple  in  Jerusa- 
lem, but  he  will  be  slain  by  the  wicked  King 
Armilus,  "  son  of  Satan  and  a  stone," '  who 
will  also  drive  the  Jews  out  of  Palestine. 
Thereupon  the  real  Messiah,  the  son  of 
David,  will  be  revealed  to  them  by  God,  but 
they  will  refuse  to  believe  in  him,  and  will 
despise  him.  Later,  when  they  return  to  God 
in  humility  and  repentance,  on  account  of 
the  terrible  distress  of  those  days,  the  Mes- 
siah will  kill  Armilus,  and  bring  the  Jews 
back  to  Palestine. 

Like  all  the  preceding  Messianic  apoca- 
lypses, this  also  contains  many  fanciful  de- 
tails about  the  cleansing  and  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem,  the  restoration  of  the  Temple 
service,  and  the  temporary  Messianic  period, 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM  I25 

to  be  followed  by  the  Day  of  Judgment. 
This  apocalypse  regards  the  "  Gehenna  "  as 
a  purgatory,  employed  at  the  time  of  judg- 
ment to  cleanse  the  wicked  of  their  sins.  To 
those  who  manifest  faith  in  God,  the  fire  of 
Gehenna  will  appear  as  cold  as  water,  and, 
passing  through  it,  they  will  enter  Paradise 
to  enjoy  eternal  bliss.  The  wicked,  how- 
ever, will  remain  there  for  twelve  months, 
and  then  be  taken  into  Paradise. 

The  Geonini  of  Sora  and  of  Pumbedita, 
engrossed  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud  and  in 
the  application  of  its  laws,  took  but  little 
notice  of  the  spirit  of  rebellion  gradually 
developing.  When  the  danger  became  im- 
minent, and  anti-Rabbinic  views  were  enter- 
tained by  even  the  learned  and  the  influen- 
tial, the  Rabbis  came  forth  with  all  the 
weapons  at  their  command  to  combat  the 
enemy.  The  artificial  measures  they  could 
apply  availed  little  to  check  the  rising  tide. 
They  succeeded,  indeed,  in  dispossessing 
Anan  of  the  Exilarchate  {762),  and  in  com- 


126  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

pelling  him  to  flee  from  Babylon  to  Palestine 
because  of  his  heretical  views,  but  their  ana- 
themas did  not  prevent  him  from  building 
his  own  synagogue  and  promulgating  a  doc- 
trine which  was  destined  to  undermine,  and 
finally  overthrow,  their  authority  among 
a  large  number  of  Jews. 

Karaism  gained  ground  in  all  the  import- 
ant Jewish  communities.  The  hatred  to- 
ward the  Talmud  and  its  adherents  became 
so  fierce  that  Anan  once  declared,  he  wished 
all  the  Rabbinites  were  in  his  own  body,  so 
that,  killing  himself,  he  might  destroy  them 
all.  But  there  is  no  absolute  evil  in  this 
world.  Indirectly  Karaism  brought  much 
good  to  Israel.  It  induced  the  Talmudists 
to  apply  themselves  with  greater  zeal  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  the  stronghold  of  the 
Karaite,  so  that  they  might  be  in  a  position 
to  defend  their  own  principles. 

The  rational  study  of  the  Bible  and  of 
Jewish  doctrine  among  the  Jews  of  Babylon 
was  helped  on  by  still  another  influence.  The 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         127 

rise  of  the  Mohammedan  Mutazihsts  (ra- 
tionahsts),  who  substituted  a  rational  for 
the  literal  interpretation  of  the  Koran,  could 
not  but  affect  the  Jewish  student  of  the 
Bible.  At  first  the  Rabbis  were  strenuously- 
opposed  to  such  tendencies,  and  did  their 
utmost  to  prevent  them  from  creeping  into 
the  schools,  only  to  be  in  the  end  defeated. 
Among  the  Karaites  these  rationalistic  ten- 
dencies gave  rise  to  the  establishment  of  va- 
rious sects.  A  Persian  Jew,  Judah  Jud- 
ghan  of  Hamadan,  who  pretended  to  be  the 
herald  of  the  Messiah  (about  800),'  was  an 
ardent  believer  in  the  Mutazilist  methods  of 
interpretation.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining 
many  followers,  who  preserved  their  iden- 
tity for  many  years  after  Judah 's  death,  and 
believed  in  his  re-appearance,  as  the  Mo- 
hammedan Shiites  believed  in  the  re-appear- 
ance of  Ali.'° 

From  Arabia  the  impulse  for  a  rational  in- 
vestigation of  Jewish  doctrine  passed  to 
Egypt,  to  Cordova,  to  Toledo,  until  it  affect- 


128  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


ed  the  minds  of  all  Jews,  left  an  indelible 
mark  on  Jewish  opinions  and  beliefs,  and 
gave  birth  to  that  fruitful  and  noble  litera- 
ture, the  philosophic  Jewish  literature  of  the 
middles  ages,  in  whose  production  Karaism 
was  by  no  means  the  least  factor. 

Saadia  Gaon  (892-942)  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  who,  without  fear  of  impairing 
faith,  constructed  a  Jewish  religious  philoso- 
phy on  the  basis  of  the  Bible  and  of  tradi- 
tion, in  agreement  with  the  philosophic  no- 
tions of  his  time.  Two  chapters  of  his  im- 
portant book,  "  Opinions  and  Beliefs,"  de- 
mand our  special  consideration,  since  they 
deal  with  the  subject  of  the  Messiah.  These 
are  the  chapters  on  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  (7)  and  the  last  redemption  (8). 

His  discussion  of  the  questions  relating  to 
the  Messianic  period  introduces  few  new 
facts,  but  it  attempts  to  rationalize  the  nu- 
merous prevalent  beliefs  and  teachings.  He 
argues  the  possibility  of  the  restoration  of 
Israel  and  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  as 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         129 

a  corollary  to  the  belief  in  God's  ability  to 
create  the  world,  and  considers  these  mir- 
acles inevitable,  as  the  realization  of  God's 
promises  to  Israel  recorded  in  the  Bible." 

Against  those  who  hold,  that  the  Messi- 
anic hope  at  the  present  time  has  no  Biblical 
foundation,  since  all  the  prophetic  promises 
were  fulfilled  in  the  return  from  Babylon 
and  the  establishment  of  the  second  com- 
monwealth, Saadia  brings  fifteen  arguments. 
Five  are  based  on  experience,  five  on  Scrip- 
ture, and  five  on  tradition.  They  show  that 
the  promises  have  not  been  fulfilled,  and 
hence  must  refer  to  the  remote  future.  The 
same  arguments  he  directs  against  the  belief 
of  the  Christians,  that  the  promises  have  ref- 
erence to  the  appearance  of  Jesus,  whom 
they  regard  as  the  Messiah  heralded  by  the 
prophets.'''  Likewise,  he  attempts  to  account 
for  the  miracle  of  resurrection,  as  not  only 
possible  to  an  omnipotent  God,  but  even  as  a 
physical  possibility.  The  elements  of  the 
body  cannot  be  lost  or  destroyed;  they  re- 


I30  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

main  somewhere  in  the  world  even  after 
death,  and  are  ready  to  be  joined  again  at 
the  will  of  God.  In  support  of  this  doctrine, 
he  quotes  the  Biblical  references  to  resur- 
rection, and  shows  that  the  passages  which 
appear  to  deny  the  doctrine  refer  to  some- 
thing else,  and  the  passages  alluding  to  it 
must  be  taken  literally.  He  considers  pos- 
sible even  the  Talmudic  belief,  that  the  dead 
will  arise  in  the  same  garments  in  which 
they  were  buried. 

Saadia's  theory  to  account  for  Israel's  se- 
vere and  long-continued  trials  is,  that  they 
were  intended  either  as  a  punishment  for 
Israel's  sins  or  as  a  test  of  faith.  Their 
very  severity  seems  to  presage  the  approach 
of  the  Messianic  kingdom.  Israel's  troubles 
must  ultimately  cease,  since  God  is  perfect  in 
justice. 

He  who  laughs  at  us  for  our  beHef,  and  regards 
us  as  fools  for  suffering,  when  we  could  be  happy 
by  renouncing  our  nationality,  is  himself  a  fool, 
for  he  knows  not  what  we  have  endured,  and  what 
tests  we  have  undergone  for  our  faith,  as  one,  who 
never  saw  the  sowing  of  wheat,  laughs  at  the  sower 


THE  RISE  OE  RATIONALISM         131 

scattering  grains  over  the  field,  for  he  knows  not 
that  at  the  harvest  he  will  gain  twenty  or  thirtyfold 
what  he  has  cast  away. 

Another  point  on  which  he  lays  stress  is 
the  effect  of  Israel's  real  repentance.  He  em- 
phasizes a  point  already  mentioned  in  "  The 
Mysteries  of  Rabbi  Simeon  ben  Johai," 
that,  because  of  Israel's  unworthiness,  there 
shall  appear  first,  not  the  Messiah  son  of 
David,  but  the  Messiah  son  of  Joseph,  re- 
garding whose  appearance  and  death  at  the 
hands  of  Armilus,  in  his  attempt  to  regain 
Palestine,  he  adds  little  that  is  new.  He 
seems  to  have  been  largely  influenced  by  the 
description  of  the  Messianic  days  as  given 
in  this  Geonic  apocalypse.  From  the  four 
corners  of  the  earth,  the  nations  shall  present 
their  Jewish  subjects  to  King  Messiah,  who 
shall  lead  them  back  to  Palestine.  The 
Temple  shall  be  rebuilt  in  splendor,  and  the 
righteous  and  the  repentant  dead  of  all  gen- 
erations shall  rise  to  life  everlasting.  They 
shall  know  each  other.  For  a  time  only, 
they  shall  have  material  wants  and  pleasures, 


132  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

to  be  finally  removed  to  Paradise.  The 
crippled,  the  blind,  and  the  lame  shall  rise 
in  their  infirmities,  and,  after  they  are  rec- 
ognized by  their  families  and  friends,  they 
shall  be  made  whole.  Calculating  the  ap- 
proximate number  of  people  at  that  time, 
Saadia  concludes  that  the  earth  will  not  be 
too  small  for  them.  Each  person  will  have 
at  his  disposal  nearly  two  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  cubits  of  ground."  Faith  shall 
then  be  universal  and  be  richly  rewarded. 
The  people  of  those  days  and  the  people 
born  after  the  resurrection  shall  live  very 
long,  though  not  forever."  "  And  all  the 
children  of  Israel  shall  be  possessed  of  the 
power  of  prophecy,  desirous  of  doing  good 
and  avoiding  all  evil." 

This  Messianic  period  induced  by  true  re- 
pentance is  one  possible  period  of  redemp- 
tion, the  other  is  the  period  of  the  "  promised 
end,"  according  to  the  prophecy  in  the  Book 
of  Daniel.  This  would  come  at  the  end  of 
days  even  if  Israel's  repentance  be  incom- 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM  133 


plete.  Then,  disregarding  the  strict  Tal- 
mudic  injunction,  he  devotes  a  long  para- 
graph to  the  calculation  of  Messianic  dates, 
according  to  the  word  of  the  angel  to  Daniel. 
His  conclusions  are  not  very  clear,  but  he 
seems  to  have  expected  the  Messiah  in  his 
own  days  (964)/" 

Saadia  was  often  criticised  for  transgress- 
ing the  Rabbinical  prohibition  by  his  calcu- 
lation of  the  date  of  the  redemption.  Mai- 
monides,  though  condemning  the  practice, 
endeavored  to  justify  Saadia.  He  says" 
Saadia  was  compelled  to  do  it,  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  Messianic  hope  in  the  minds 
of  the  Jews  of  his  time,  who,  impatient  about 
the  end,  were  all  conjecturing  as  to  the  date, 
and  seeking  Biblical  passages  upon  which  to 
base  their  conclusions.  The  Rabbinical  pro- 
hibition was  not  much  heeded  even  by  later 
writers.  During  the  Crusades,  the  German 
and  French  Jews  were  excitedly  awaiting 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  because  a  mystic, 
Eliezer  ben  Nathan  Kontras,  calculated  that 


134  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  Messiah  would  come  in  the  two  hundred 
and  fifty-sixth  cycle  of  the  moon  (between 
1096  and  1 104)." 

Elijah  and  even  the  Messiah  play  rather 
unimportant  parts  in  Saadia's  eschatology, 
for  God  is  the  Redeemer  who  will  perform 
all  the  acts  of  mercy  for  His  people  Israel. 
Saadia's  view,  that  the  resurrection  will  take 
place  during  the  Messianic  period,  and  will 
not  be  postponed  to  "  the  world  to  come,"  "^ 
is  shared  by  Rabbi  Hai  Gaon  (969-1038), 
the  last  of  the  Geonim.  He  adds,  however, 
that  those  who  die  after  the  resurrection 
shall  be  revived  at  the  end  of  the  Messianic 
age,  when  a  new  world  will  be  established 
("  the  world  to  come  "),  into  which  all  the 
righteous  and  all  the  repentant  sinners, 
whether  Jews  or  gentiles,  who  recognize  the 
God  of  Israel,  will  be  admitted,  while  all 
others  will  go  to  Gehenna." 

Rabbi  Abraham  ben  Hiyya  Albargeloni, 
called  the  Prince  (1065-1136),  a  famous 
Jewish  astronomer  of  Castile,  formulates  a 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         135 

very  exalted  view  of  the  Messianic  period."" 
God  will  forgive  all  sins,  even  the  sin  of  the 
first  man,  will  remove  the  evil  desire  from 
the  hearts  of  men,  and  strengthen  the  faith 
of  all  who  believe  in  Him.  War  will  cease 
with  the  extinction  of  all  evil  passions  and 
the  perfect  development  of  all  good  latent  in 
the  human  heart.  Albargeloni's  theory,  ex- 
pressed at  the  end  of  his  treatise,  of  the  per- 
fection of  men's  minds  and  souls  in  the  time 
of  the  Messiah,  is  almost  modern.  With  the 
exception  of  the  use  of  Biblical  passages  as 
the  basis  for  argument,  it  sounds  more  like 
the  reasoning  of  a  modern  evolutionary  phi- 
losopher than  of  a  Jewish  philosopher  of  the 
eleventh  century. 

Some  new  fancies  added  to  the  many  Mes- 
sianic prophecies  appear  in  an  apocalypse, 
"  The  Book  of  Zerubbabel,"  ^  compiled, 
probably  by  an  Italian  Jew,  at  about  this 
time.  We  find  the  same  background  as  be- 
fore, and  the  same  dramatis  personce — Mes- 
siah son  of  Joseph,  here  called  Nehemiah 


136  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

ben  Hushiel;  Messiah  son  of  David,  here 
named  Menahem  ben  Amiel  ( Comforter,  son 
of  God's  people)  ;  EHjah,  and  the  same  Ar- 
milus,  the  anti-Messiah,  born  of  Satan  and  a 
marble  statue.  One  new  character  is  intro- 
duced, the  mother  of  the  Messiah,  Hephzi- 
bah  ("my  desire  is  in  her").  Guided  on 
her  path  by  a  great  star,  she  will  appear  five 
years  before  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  son 
of  Joseph,  and  will  slay  two  mighty  kings 
with  the  staff  of  Aaron,  which  was  preserved 
in  Tiberias. 

The  background  of  this  fanciful  descrip- 
tion of  the  Messianic  age  is  as  follows: 
Zerubbabel,  the  scion  of  the  house  of  David, 
desires  to  know  something  about  the  destiny 
of  his  afflicted  people.  He  is  thereupon  car- 
ried to  Rome,  "  the  bloody  city,"  where  he 
meets  the  Messiah  of  hideous  appearance, 
soon  to  be  transformed  into  a  beautiful 
youth,  and  is  introduced  to  him  by  the  angel 
Metatron.  The  angel  tells  Zerubbabel,  how 
the  Messiah  has  been  living  in  Rome  since 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         137 

the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  under  the  dis- 
guise of  a  deformed  and  hideous  creature, 
and  reveals  to  him  the  date  of  his  appear- 
ance (990  years  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  1058  or  1060  C  E.),''  and  the  inci- 
dents of  the  Messianic  era.  In  this  apoca- 
lypse, Elijah  is  supposed  to  revive  only  the 
slain  Nehemiah  Messiah  son  of  Joseph,  to- 
gether with  the  faithful  who  met  death  at 
the  time  of  persecution,  as  well  as  the  gener- 
ation of  the  wilderness. 

The  most  sympathetic  and  most  lovable 
character  among  the  sages  and  philosophers 
whose  names  adorn  the  pages  of  Spanish 
Jewish  history  is  that  of  Rabbi  Jehudah  Ha- 
levi  ( 1 080- 1 142  ?) ,  a  poet  and  a  philosopher, 
but  above  all  a  true  Jewish  patriot,  whose 
heart  was  consumed  with  a  great  love  for 
his  people  and  its  land.  As  a  medieval  phi- 
losopher, he  naturally  believes  in  the  preva- 
lent Messianic  fancies,  but  in  speaking  of  the 
future  of  Israel  or  of  Palestine,  his  soul  be- 
comes aoflow  with  sacred  enthusiasm,  and  in 


138  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  fervor  and  passion  of  his  patriotism  he 
forgets  them  all.  We  need  read  only  his 
Zionistic  poems  ^^  to  obtain  an  insight  into 
the  workings  of  the  soul  of  this  great  and 
loyal  Jew. 

Do  not  calculate  the  date  of  redemption,  wait 
patiently,  do  not  hasten,  thou  shalt  yet  behold  the 
glory  of  My  work.  Say  unto  those  who  boast  of 
possessing  kings  and  princes,  "  My  king  is  the  Holy 
One  of  Jacob,  He  is  the  Rock  of  my  redemption."  ^* 

The  poet  believed  implicitly  in  the  eternity 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  and,  with  magnificent 
optimism,  even  when  the  period  in  which  the 
Messiah  was  expected  had  passed,''  he  sang 
of  Israel's  redemption  through  Elijah ''  and 
through  Messiah,  the  scion  of  the  house  of 
Jesse,"^  and  of  the  vengeance  wreaked  upon 
"  Edom  and  Arab,"  because  they  helped  in 
the  destruction  of  Israel's  land.''  Like  the 
sun  and  the  moon  which  stand  forever,  so 
will  the  sons  of  Jacob  remain  a  nation  for- 
ever. If  God  repulses  them  with  His  left 
hand.  He  Immediately  brings  them  nigh  with 
His  right  hand.    The  children  of  Israel  must 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         139 

believe  in  their  own  eternity  as  a  nation,  and 
not  despair  when  troubles  and  misfortunes 
come  upon  them/' 

His  Kuzari,  as  much  a  book  of  poetry  as 
of  philosophy,  contains  many  references  to 
the  Messiah  and  the  Messianic  period,  but 
not  a  complete  theory.  Jehudah  Halevi  com- 
pares Israel's  relation  to  the  other  nations  of 
the  world  to  that  of  the  heart  to  the  other 
organs  of  the  body.  Israel  supplies  vitality 
to  all  the  spiritual  forces  that  move  human- 
ity, and  is  subject  to  all  the  ills  and  maladies 
that  afflict  the  human  heart.'"  It  is  of  Israel 
that  the  prophet  said,  "  Surely,  he  hath  borne 
our  griefs,  and  carried  our  sorrows."  "  The 
dispersion  of  Israel  is  also  in  accordance 
with  the  Divine  plan.  As  the  grain  of  seed 
planted  in  the  soil  must  decay  before  it  may 
bud  forth  in  beauty  and  splendor,  so  Israel, 
despised  and  forsaken,  shall  again  blossom 
forth  in  perfect  beauty.  Christianity  and 
Islam  are  preparing  the  way  for  a  better 
recognition  of  the  ideals  of  Judaism.     When 


I40  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

all  mankind  shall  learn  to  appreciate  the  true 
value  of  the  stem,  the  fruit  of  which  they 
have  so  long  enjoyed,  they  will  give  honor 
to  Israel,  and,  with  the  chosen  people,  will 
enter  the  Messianic  kingdom/''  Both  in  the 
Kuzari  '^  and  in  his  poems,'*  Halevi  refers, 
though  without  much  stress,  to  the  belief  in 
the  resurrection,  and  some  modern  scholars  '" 
interpret  his  words  as  identifying  resurrec- 
tion with  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

In  the  philosophy  of  Jehudah  Halevi  we 
find  an  element  not  to  be  discerned  in  earlier 
writings.  Halevi  finds  it  necessary  to  prove, 
that  Israel  has  a  reason  for  existence,  and 
that,  before  it  receives  the  Messianic  bless- 
ings, it  must  perform  the  mission  of  spread- 
ing God's  revelation  among  the  nations.  The 
accomplishment  of  this  mission  depends, 
however,  not  so  much  upon  Israel  as  upon 
the  nations,  who  must  learn  to  appreciate 
Judaism  and  then  accept  it.  This  point  is 
interesting,  especially  when  viewed  in  the 
light  of  the  wider  application  given  it  with 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         141 

the  Spread  of  the  modern  Jewish  reform 
movement.  As  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chap- 
ter, the  notion  of  a  Jewish  mission  is  a  prom- 
inent element  in  the  reform  movement. 

Although  Jewish  learning  had  departed 
from  the  East,  to  find  a  more  congenial  soil 
in  Moorish  Spain,  important  Jewish  com- 
munities still  flourished  in  Bagdad  and  in 
Mosul.  Because  of  the  freedom  granted 
them  by  the  ruling  Caliphs,  they  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  their  surroundings. 
Since  the  Jews  of  Babylon  were  not  so 
learned  and  so  refined  as  their  brethren  in 
European  lands,  it  was  much  easier  for  a 
false  Messiah  to  command  their  confidence 
and  obtain  a  large  following.  The  confu- 
sion of  legend  and  fact  is  so  profound  that 
it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  motives  that 
prompted  David  Alrui  (about  1160)  to  de- 
clare himself  the  Messiah.  David  Alrui 
was  handsome,  ambitious,  and  versatile, 
Avell-versed  in  Bible  and  in  Talmud  as  well  as 
in  Arabic  literature,  and  held  in  high  esteem 


142  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

by  Jews  and  Arabs  alike.  The  confusion 
throughout  Asia  Minor  resulting  from  the 
repeated  onslaughts  of  the  Crusaders  and  the 
weakness  of  a  Caliphate  under  which  so  sub- 
ordinate an  officer  as  Saladin  could  rise  to 
the  position  he  attained,  encouraged  the 
Kurdistan  youth  in  his  speculations,  and  de- 
termined him  to  gain  his  end  by  diplomatic 
means.  He  was  still  more  encouraged  by 
the  ready  response  of  the  Jews  of  Bagdad 
and  other  places,  who  came  armed  at  his  call. 
We  need  not  enter  here  upon  a  discussion 
as  to  the  truth  of  the  many  miracles  he  is 
said  to  have  performed  in  the  presence  of 
the  Persian  Sultan,  nor  of  the  shrewdness  of 
the  two  knaves  who  took  advantage  of  the 
excitement  of  the  people  to  defraud  the  Jews 
of  Bagdad  of  their  property.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  that  the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  commu- 
nity, realizing  the  danger  that  threatened 
them  at  the  hands  of  the  ruler  if  they  per- 
mitted Alrui  to  continue  in  his  delusion, 
asked   him   to   desist   from   his   operations. 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         143 

The  Mohammedan  ruler  of  Amadia,  how- 
ever, took  the  more  effective  course  of  order- 
ing Alrui's  father-in-law  to  put  an  end  to 
him  while  he  was  asleep.  A  persecution  of 
the  Jews  followed,  and  the  wrath  of  the 
Sultan  was  appeased  only  after  he  was  pre- 
sented with  a  hundred  talents  of  gold  by  the 
Jewish  community.  Many  Jews  continued 
to  revere  Alrui  as  the  Messiah,  and  even  used 
his  name  in  their  oaths.^^ 

The  development  of  Jewish  religious  phi- 
losophy during  the  middle  ages  reached  its 
height  in  the  works  of  Moses  Maimonides 
( 1 135-1204).  A  recognized  authority  in 
Jewish  law,  admired  for  his  deep  knowledge 
and  upright  character,  and  held  in  highest 
esteem  by  all  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora,  the 
sage  of  Cairo  was  perhaps  the  person  best 
fitted  to  formulate  a  Jewish  creed. 

"Maimonides  must  indeed  have  filled  up  a  great 
gap  in  Jewish  theology,"  says  Dr.  Schechter,^^  "a 
gap,  moreover,  the  existence  of  which  was  very  gen- 
erally perceived.  A  century  had  hardly  passed  before 
the  Thirteen  Articles  had  become  a  theme  for  the 


144  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

poets  of  the  synagogue.  And  almost  every  country 
where  Jews  lived  can  show  a  poem  or  a  prayer 
founded  on  these  articles." 

No  article  of  belief  had  become  so  buried 
in  extravagant  fancies  as  the  Messianic  hope, 
which  IS  incorporated  in  the  last  two  articles 
of  his  creed.  Maimonides'  view  with  re- 
gard to  these  articles  can  best  be  ascertained 
from  his  Introduction  to  the  whole  subject, 
in  his  commentary  to  the  last  chapter  of  the 
Talmudic  treatise  Sanhedrin.  In  discussing 
the  various  popular  conceptions  of  the  re- 
ward awaiting  those  that  follow  the  com- 
mandments of  God,  he  mentions  a  class  of 
people  who  believe  that  the  expected  good 
will  come  in  the  Messianic  age,  when  men 
shall  be  like  angels,  immortal,  of  great  stat- 
ure, and  very  prolific;  when  the  earth  shall 
produce  ready-made  garments,  and  baked 
bread,  and  other  such  impossibilities.  An- 
other class  of  people  hope  for  the  resurrec- 
tion, when,  in  the  company  of  their  families 
and  dear  ones,  they  shall  enjoy  the  blessings 
of  the  earth,  and  shall  never  die  again.    An- 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         145 

other  class,  very  numerous,  combine  all 
these  hopes.  They  believe  that  after  the 
Messiah  has  come  and  has  revived  the  dead, 
all  will  be  translated  to  Paradise,  where, 
throughout  eternity,  they  will  eat,  and  drink, 
and  enjoy  perfect  physical  health. 

The  common  people,  Maimonides  con- 
tinues, do  not  attempt  to  investigate  the  real 
meaning  of  the  hope  of  a  future  life.  They 
are  rather  concerned  about  the  material  and 
the  concrete :  "  How  will  the  dead  rise  ? 
naked  or  clothed  ?  attired  in  the  embroidered 
shrouds  in  which  they  were  interred,  or 
dressed  in  a  simple  garment  to  cover  their 
flesh  ?  "  With  regard  to  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  they  are  concerned  with  such  specu- 
lations as  to  whether  there  will  then  be  rich 
and  poor,  weak  and  strong.  It  is  well 
enough  for  the  teacher  to  attract  his  youth- 
ful pupil  to  study  first  with  figs  and  honey, 
and  then  with  the  prospect  of  wealth  and 
fame.  Men  of  intelligence  ought  to  know 
better.     Likewise,  material   descriptions  of 


146  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

future  bliss  are  merely  a  means  to  an  end, 
designed  for  the  average  man,  who  is  un- 
able to  comprehend  exalted  spiritual  truths, 
as  the  school-boy  is  unable  to  appreciate  the 
value  of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake.  The 
concessions  made  by  the  prophets  and  the 
Rabbis  had  an  educational  value,  inasmuch 
as  they  were  meant  to  foster  virtue.  For 
men  the  love  of  knowledge  and  the  apprecia- 
tion of  the  spiritual  value  of  the  command- 
ments of  God  should  be  the  only  and  the 
most  potent  stimulus. 

Then  he  presents  the  first  rational  picture 
of  the  Messianic  age  that  had  appeared  for 
many  centuries.  The  Messianic  age  will  be 
one  in  which  Israel  will  regain  its  sovereign- 
ty and  return  to  Palestine  under  the  Mes- 
siah. He  will  be  a  great  king,  whose  name 
will  be  known  among  all  the  nations,  and 
whose  fame  will  exceed  that  of  Solomon. 
All  the  nations  that  are  delivered  into  his 
hand  will  live  in  peace  with  him  and  will 
pay  homage  to  him.     But  there  will  be  no 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         147 

change  in  the  course  of  nature.  Although 
it  will  be  easier  for  man  to  earn  a  livelihood, 
there  will  be  then,  as  there  are  now,  rich 
and  poor,  strong  and  weak.  All  the  prom- 
ises of  the  Rabbis  about  ready-made  gar- 
ments and  baked  bread  produced  by  the  earth 
are  merely  figurative  expressions,  intended 
to  denote  the  ease  with  which  man,  under 
the  rule  of  the  Messiah,  will  acquire  the 
necessaries  of  life. 

The  greatest  blessing  of  those  days  will 
be  that  man,  free  from  the  trammels  of  war, 
will  be  able  to  devote  all  his  time  to  the  study 
of  wisdom  and  to  the  fulfilment  of  God's 
laws.  The  Messiah  will  die,  and  his  son  will 
become  king  in  his  stead,  and  there  will  be 
no  immortality,  but  the  people  will  live  much 
longer,  because  they  will  not  be  harassed  by 
the  troubles  and  worries  that  beset  us  now. 
We  hope  for  the  Messiah,  not  because  we 
shall  then  enjoy  great  prosperity,  ride  on 
horses,  drink  wine,  and  enjoy  fine  music,  but 
because,  under  the  rule  of  a  righteous  king 


148  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

and  in  the  company  of  all  the  righteous,  we 
shall  be  able,  unhampered,  to  devote  our- 
selves to  spiritual  work,  an  idea  which  he 
frequently  dwelt  on.  The  belief  in  the  res- 
urrection of  the  dead  is  a  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  the  Mosaic  religion,  and  he  who  de- 
nies this  cannot  claim  to  be  an  adherent  of 
Judaism.  Only  the  righteous  will  rise,  the 
wicked,  who  are  regarded  as  dead  even  while 
they  are  yet  alive,  will  have  no  share  in  it. 
Maimonides  then  follows  up  this  forceful 
and  significant  argument  with  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  thirteen  articles  of  the  creed  which 
he  regards  as  essential  principles  of  Judaism. 
Throughout  his  later  writings,  Maimo- 
nides seems  to  have  clung  to  the  conception 
of  the  Messianic  period  to  which,  in  his 
youth,  he  gave  utterance  in  the  Siraj.  In 
his  legal  code,  the  Mishneh  Torah^^  he  says, 
"  And  do  not  imagine  for  a  moment  that  the 
king  Messiah  will  have  to  perform  wonders 
and  miracles,  create  new  phenomena  In  na- 
ture, and  cause  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         149 

.  .  .  ,  but  the  world  will  go  on  in  its  usual 
course."  From  the  writings  of  the  prophets 
it  appears,  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mes- 
sianic period,  before  the  wars  of  Gog  and 
Magog,  a  prophet  will  arise  to  prepare  Israel 
for  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  and  make 
peace  among  the  nations.  Some  are  of  the 
opinion  that  Elijah  will  then  appear.  But 
no  one  can  foretell  the  exact  nature  of  this 
future  state,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  indulge 
in  useless  speculation  about  unessential  de- 
tails. In  another  place,  in  the  same  book,^ 
he  again  emphasizes  the  idea,  that  knowl- 
edge, wisdom,  and  truth  will  characterize 
that  glorious  period,  the  Messiah  himself  will 
be  wiser  than  Solomon,  and  almost  as  great 
a  prophet  as  Moses.  He  will  teach  the  word 
of  God  to  all,  and  all  nations  will  come  to 
listen  to  his  wisdom.  There  will  be  no  dif- 
ference between  those  days  and  the  present 
time,  except  that  Israel  will  regain  the  sov- 
ereignty over  Palestine.  In  his  letter  to 
Yemen,   where   the   sorely-tried   Jews   had 


150  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

been  led  astray  by  an  enthusiast  who  pro- 
claimed himself  the  forerunner  of  the  Mes- 
siah, Maimonides  points  out  the  danger  and 
impiety  of  attempting  to  calculate  the  date 
of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  which  has 
been  purposely  concealed.  It  is  very  curious, 
however,  that  while  he  condemns  the  specu- 
lation about  the  exact  date  of  the  Messiah's 
coming,  he  mentions  in  the  same  letter,  that, 
according  to  a  tradition  handed  down  in  his 
family,  prophecy,  the  forerunner  of  the  Mes- 
siah, will  re-appear  in  the  year  1216."^ 

While  Maimonides'  conception  of  the 
Messiah  and  of  the  Messianic  age  is  thus 
clearly  and  fully  stated,  he  is  less  clear  about 
the  resurrection,  although  he  believed  in  it, 
and  included  this  belief  in  his  articles  of 
faith,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  deny  a  por- 
tion in  Judaism  to  him  who  disbelieved  in  it. 
Still,  when  one  of  his  contemporaries  (Has- 
dai  Halevi)*'  asked  him  to  explain  the  belief, 
he  answered  evasively,  that  this  miracle  can 
be  explained  only  by  faith,  and  not  by  rea- 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         151 

son.  When  the  opposition  to  his  "  Guide 
for  the  Perplexed  "  reached  its  acutest  point 
in  Bagdad,  Maimonides  found  it  necessary 
to  explain  his  position  with  regard  to  resur- 
rection in  a  separate  treatise,"  in  which  he 
repeated  the  assertion  that  his  theory  of  im- 
mortality did  not  contradict  the  belief  in 
resurrection,  and,  although  the  latter  cannot 
be  verified  by  scientific  methods  of  reasoning, 
it  is  a  cardinal  principle  of  Judaism. 

The  later  Jewish  philosophers,  almost  all 
of  whom  base  their  views  on  Maimonides, 
either  confirming  or  opposing  his  theories, 
are  more  pronounced  about  this  belief,  and 
try,  if  not  to  prove  it  scientifically,  at  least  to 
show  that  it  is  not  opposed  to  science.  Most 
of  them,  however,  refuse  to  include  either 
the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  or 
the  belief  in  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 
among  the  essential  principles  of  the  Jewish 
religion. 

Hasdai  Crescas  (1340-1410)"  admits  that 
resurrection,  although  a  miracle,  impossible 


152  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

of  proof  on  rational  grounds,  is  "  not  very 
far  from  natural."  He  strongly  objects  to 
the  assumption  of  Maimonides  and  some  of 
his  followers,  that  after  the  resurrection  na- 
ture will  continue  in  its  course,  men  will 
sicken  and  die,  and  eternal  bliss  will  await 
the  righteous  only  in  "  the  world  to  come," 
where  the  soul  freed  from  the  mortal  clay 
will  be  admitted  to  a  close  contemplation  of 
the  Divine  presence.  He  takes  the  view  that 
we  dare  not  disregard  the  belief  expressed  by 
the  Rabbis,  that  "  the  revived  dead  will  never 
return  to  dust  any  more,"  '*  and  expresses 
a  desire  that  the  adherents  of  this  great 
hope  shall  cling  to  every  detail  of  the  belief 
as  formulated  by  our  sages. 

Joseph  Albo  (1380-1444),  a  disciple  of 
Hasdai,  considers  *°  the  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection proper,  though  not  essential,  and 
tries  to  establish  it  from  the  instance  of 
Elisha's  revival  of  the  son  of  the  Shunam- 
mite  woman.  He  argues  that  just  as  we  can- 
not explain  magnetic  attraction,  in  which  we 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         153 

nevertheless  believe,  because  we  know  it 
from  experience,  so  we  must  also  believe  in 
the  resurrection,  since  its  possibility  has  been 
established  by  experience.  He  also  uses 
Saadia's  argument,  that  resurrection  is  a 
much  simpler  phenomenon  than  creation  out 
of  nothing.  The  body  that  once  possessed 
a  soul  is  likely  to  regain  it,  just  as  the  match 
that  was  once  lighted  will  more  easily  catch 
fire  again.  Albo  also  states,  though  without 
expressing  himself  in  favor  of  any  particular 
one,  the  various  views  about  the  state  of  the 
risen  dead,  the  classes  of  people  to  have  a 
share  in  the  resurrection,  and  the  ideas  of 
different  theologians  about  the  exact  time  of 
the  resurrection,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mes- 
sianic period,  or  later,  on  the  Day  of  Judg- 
ment. According  to  Albo  every  believer  in 
future  reward  and  punishment,  no  matter 
what  his  conception  of  that  reward  and  pun- 
ishment, is  to  be  regarded  as  a  professor  of 
Judaism. 

The  Messianic  idea  thus  received  a  new 


154  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

form  In  the  writings  of  the  Jewish  rehgious 
philosophers  of  the  middle  ages.  Retaining 
the  main  outlines  of  the  Messianic  figure  and 
times  as  delineated  in  the  Talmud,  they 
dropped  all  fanciful  and  materialistic  no- 
tions, and  tried  to  rationalize  the  supernat- 
ural elements  connected  with  the  idea.  It 
would  be  untrue  to  assert  that  their  views 
were  shared  to  any  considerable  extent  by 
the  great  mass  of  the  people.  Even  the 
learned  of  that  time  were  unwilling  to  disre- 
gard the  details  of  the  Talmudic  conception 
of  the  Messiah,  many  of  which  are  retained 
by  some  Jews  to  the  present  day.  As  we 
shall  see  later,  it  was  at  this  period  that 
grosser  and  more  materialistic  views  of  the 
Messianic  period  were  introduced,  through 
an  entirely  different  source.  Still  the  ration- 
alistic tendency  introduced  by  these  philo- 
sophic writings  no  doubt  did  a  great  deal 
toward  modifying  the  coarse  and  crude  no- 
tions which  find  expression  in  some  of  the 
later    Midrashim    and    in    the    Kabbalistic 


THE  RISE  OF  RATIONALISM         155 

works.  This  again  proves  the  phabihty  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  its  adaptabihty  to  inter- 
pretation in  agreement  with  the  spirit  of  the 
times.  None  of  these  philosophers  imagined 
for  a  moment  that  he  was  departing  from 
the  Talmud  or  from  tradition  when  he  at- 
tempted to  explain  the  supernatural  elements 
interwoven  with  the  Messianic  idea,  and 
disregarded  the  more  objectionable  of  them. 
In  the  next  chapter,  we  shall  see  how  these 
notions  were  again  changed  and  moulded  by 
a  different  school  of  Jewish  thinkers,  more 
spiritual  and  fanciful  in  their  speculations, 
who  left  a  more  lasting  impression  upon 
popular  belief. 


CHAPTER  V 
The  Development  in  the  Kabbalah 

Action  and  Reaction  in  Human  History — Excessive 
Rationalism  produces  Mysticism — Mysticism 
Valuable  in  Time  of  Persecution — The  Masses 
fail  to  understand  the  Kabbalah — Fanciful 
Speculations — Credulity  of  the  Masses  and  the 
Pseudo-Messiahs — Nahmanides — His  Disputation 
with  Pablo  Christiani — His  Idea  of  the  Mes- 
sianic Period — Tartar  Invasion  of  Palestine 
— Abraham  Abulafia's  Messiahship — Other  Im- 
postors— Moses  de  Leon  publishes  the  Zohar — 
Messianic  Speculations  in  the  Zohar — The  Date 
of  the  Messiah's  Arrival — The  Period  preceding 
the  Messianic  Age — "  The  Suffering  Messiah  " — 
The  Greatest  Achievement  of  the  Messianic  Age 
— The  Diffusion  of  Kabbalistic  Lore — Persecu- 
tions of  the  Jews  in  the  Fourteenth  Century — 
Moses  Botarel  claims  Messiahship — Isaac  Abar- 
banel  on  the  Advent  of  the  Messiah — Writes 
Three  Messianic  Books — His  Views  Rational — 
Yet  indulges  in  Calculations  of  the  Promised 
End — Asher  Lammlein  declares  himself  a  Fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah — Hope  of  the  Marranos 
aroused — David  Reubeni's  Political  Plans — He 
meets  with  Success  in  Rome  and  in  Portugal — 
Solomon  Molcho  attracted  by  Reubeni's  Ad- 
ventures— Returns  to  Judaism — Arouses  Jews  of 
Turkey — Encouraged  by  Events — His  Dream — 
End  of  Reubeni  and  Molcho — The  Belief  in  the 
Kabbalah  not  impaired — Isaac  Lurya  and  Hay- 
yim  Vital — Beneficent  Influences  of  the  Kab- 
balah. 

The  history  of  human  events  is  a  history 
of  actions  and  reactions.     The  extreme  de- 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       157 

velopment  of  any  principle,  for  good  or  for 
evil,  generally  produces  a  reactionary  move- 
ment, which  results  finally  in  a  safe  and 
happy  mean.  Thus,  when  the  desire  for 
liberty  becomes  abnormal,  and  prompts  na- 
tions to  plunge  into  bloody  warfare,  likely  to 
enslave  its  very  votaries,  opposing  influences 
soon  set  in,  tending  toward  the  other  ex- 
treme, until,  after  mutual  concessions,  a 
form  of  government  is  established  best  suited 
for  the  people.  This  phenomenon  has  oc- 
curred so  frequently  in  the  history  of  na- 
tions that  we  may  regard  it  almost  as  a  law 
of  nature,  a  primary  principle  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  humanity. 

In  Jewish  history,  the  workings  of  this 
phenomenon  are  most  evident  in  the  growth 
and  decay,  during  the  thirteenth  century,  of 
the  rationalistic  movement,  made  popular  by 
Maimonides.  Thoroughly  versed  in  all  de- 
partments of  Jewish  lore  and  in  the  prevail- 
ing theories  of  philosophy,  possessed  of 
strong  faith  and  inexhaustible  love  for  Juda- 


158  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

ism,  Maimonides,  more  than  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors and  perhaps  also  more  than  those 
who  came  after  him,  succeeded  in  construct- 
ing a  Jewish  creed  in  agreement  with  pre- 
vaihng  scientific  notions.  But  rationaHsm 
left  to  the  sweet  will  of  the  people  becomes  a 
dangerous  thing.  In  its  extreme  manifes- 
tations, it  may  produce  such  phenomena  as  a 
religion  of  reason,  that  most  abominable  of 
all  the  vagaries  of  the  French  Revolution. 
In  thirteenth  century  Judaism,  when  the 
writings  of  Maimonides  were  regarded  by 
many  as  a  new  revelation,  the  adoption  of 
his  rational  methods  of  interpretation,  if  left 
to  unskilled  hands,  might  have  proved  disas- 
trous to  the  development  of  Judaism.  Luck- 
ily, when  the  tendency  was  becoming  dan- 
gerous, it  was  checked  by  contradicting  in- 
fluences, which  went  to  the  other  extreme, 
and  forbade  every  kind  of  rational  investi- 
gation. Besides  the  bitter  opposition  to 
Maimonides  on  the  part  of  many  Rabbis  and 
obscurantists,  and  the  warfare  between  them 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       159 

and  the  Maimunists,  which  raged  for  a  long 
time,  and  was  accompanied  by  many  indigni- 
ties and  outrages,  another  influence  arose  at 
that  period,  the  very  opposite  of  that  ani- 
mating the  "  Guide  for  the  Perplexed  "  and 
the  "  Book  of  Knowledge  *'  (the  first  part  of 
Maimonides'  code,  Mishneh  ToraJi).  The 
influence  of  mysticism,  despite  its  pernicious 
effects,  was  most  valuable  in  the  preservation 
of  Judaism  and  the  Jews. 

The  mysticism,  of  which  we  see  the  be- 
ginnings in  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  in  the 
early  and  the  later  Geonic,  pseudepigraphic 
literature,  had  gone  on  increasing  in 
strength,  parallel  with  Rabbinism,  during  the 
many  unhappy  years  of  Israel's  trials,  and 
the  Maimunist  controversy  contributed  to  its 
extreme  development.  Its  teachings  became 
marvellously  diffused,  and  left  their  impress 
on  Jewish  observance,  upon  the  ritual,  and 
upon  the  codes  of  law.  The  hopes  it  aroused, 
shrouded  as  they  were  in  mystical  allusions 
and  obscure  legends,  became  the  property  of 


l6o  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  masses,  and  helped  them  to  remain  firm 
in  their  faith  in  the  face  of  all  misfortunes — 
a  result  which  pure  rationalism  could  never 
have  accomplished. 

Fearful  days  were  soon  to  come  upon  Is- 
rael. The  devotees  of  the  "  religion  of 
love  "  were  about  to  take  a  greater  interest, 
not  only  in  the  wealth  and  earthly  posses- 
sions of  the  Jews,  but  also  in  the  salvation 
of  their  souls.  Amidst  the  horrors  of  this 
time,  the  hunted  Jews  needed  more  than 
mere  reason  to  keep  them  steadfast  in  their 
faith.  The  Kabbalah  engendered  the  hope 
for  speedy  redemption  from  the  yoke  of  the 
cruel  oppressor,  a  redemption  that  would  be 
accompanied  by  many  supernatural  events, 
for  the  Jews  of  that  time  could  no  longer 
believe  in  a  natural  redemption.  It  fed  the 
wretched  and  despondent  hearts  of  the  people 
with  fanciful  dreams  and  impossible  though 
encouraging  visions  of  a  bright  and  glorious 
future.  Thus  it  kept  hope  alive  in  their 
hearts,  and  for  this  service  alone  it  deserves 
a  prominent  place  in  Jewish  history. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       l6l 

Naturally,  the  exalted  teachings  of  the 
Kabbalah,  which  laid  greatest  stress  on  the 
importance  of  man  and  his  ability  to  reach 
to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  spirituality,  could 
not  be  fully  understood  by  the  people  at 
large.  Unsatisfied  by  a  Judaized  Aristote- 
lian rationalism  as  well  as  by  the  strict,  re- 
lentless logic  of  the  Talmudic  schools,  they 
hungered  for  something  imaginative,  some- 
thing spiritual,  to  nourish  their  deep  reli- 
gious feeling.  This  they  found  in  the  Kab- 
balah as  it  was  presented  to  them.  Most  of 
all  they  were  attracted  by  the  Kabbalistic 
principle,  that  mystic  speculations  based  on 
letters  and  words,  numbers  and  phrases,  are 
the  proper  and  most  effective  means  to  at- 
tain the  highest  pitch  of  ecstasy,  and  thus 
come  in  closer  communion  with  God.  Ma- 
terializing the  ideal,  they  saw  concrete  reali- 
ties in  the  smallest  symbol  or  sign.  They 
regarded  the  simplest  phenomena  as  allu- 
sions to  something  in  the  Divine  mind. 

The  great  expounders  of  mystic  doctrines 


l62  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

used  such  forms  as  visible  expressions  of  the 
Eternal,  uplifting  human  aspirations  toward 
perfection.  Their  followers,  unable  to  ap- 
preciate the  transcendental  character  of  these 
speculations,  looking  upon  them  not  merely 
as  a  means  to  something  nobler,  more  ex- 
alted, and  more  world-embracing,  but  as  in 
themselves  effective,  naturally  laid  the  great- 
est stress  on  numerical  calculations  with  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  mysterious  allusions 
in  Biblical  phrases,  and  symbolic  interpreta- 
tions of  acrostics.  Accordingly,  they  re- 
garded those  who  could  best  establish  their 
claims  on  such  speculations  and  calculations 
as  fit  for  the  Messiah's  crown. 

It  was  thus  not  the  Kabbalah,  but  the 
popular  conception  of  it,  that  made  it  pos- 
sible for  the  pseudo-Messiahs,  often  them- 
selves misled,  to  mislead  the  people.  The 
true  Kabbalists  were  faithful  to  the  Tal- 
mudic  law  and  closely  adhered  to  Rabbinic 
Judaism,  while  the  pseudo-Messiahs,  leaning 
upon  popular  credulity  and  lack  of  under- 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       163 

standing  of  the  Kabbalah,  ahnost  invariably 
advocated  laxity  in  the  observance  of  Rab- 
binic law,  and  neglect  of  the  study  of  its 
literature.  They  appealed  to  the  weaker 
side  of  the  popular  nature,  which  was  averse 
to  the  burden  of  law,  and  at  the  same  time 
they  pandered  to  the  ever-present  popular 
desire  for  novelty,  a  characteristic  of  the 
popular  leader  since  the  days  of  Jeroboam. 
Besides,  their  Messianic  teachings  in  them- 
selves necessitated  certain  changes  in  the  ac- 
cepted laws  and  customs.  The  usual  result 
of  the  failure  of  the  pseudo-Messiahs  was 
conversion  to  the  dominant  religion,  Chris- 
tianity or  Mohammedanism,  by  some  of  their 
adherents.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  persecutions  that  generally  followed  such 
movements,  and  by  the  inherent  weakness  of 
those  of  the  people  who  were  misled  by  the 
fancies  of  the  pseudo-Kabbalah.  With  the 
foundation  of  law  shaken,  faith  in  Rabbinic 
authority  undermined,  hopes  disillusioned, 
what  power  was  left  to  uphold  the  people  in 


i64  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  face  of  concrete  and  material  troubles? 
The  Kabbalah  was  indeed  responsible  for 
a  number  of  the  misfortunes  that  befell 
Israel  during  many  centuries,  not  through 
its  essential  teachings,  however,  but  because 
of  its  manifestation  to  the  great  mass  of  the 
Jews. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of 
the  Kabbalah,  Rabbi  Moses  ben  Nahman 
Gerundi,  or  Nahmanides  (ii95?-i270?),  a 
clear-headed  thinker  and  at  the  same  time  a 
man  of  deep  spiritual  tendencies,  was  one  of 
its  most  representative  adherents.  Above 
all  a  man  of  peace,  he  did  not  assume  that 
aggressive  tone  characteristic  of  the  other 
Kabbalists  of  his  age,  nor  did  the  obscure 
doctrines  of  the  Kabbalah  affect  all  his  ideas. 
Although  he  believed  implicitly  in  the  advent 
of  the  Messiah,  and  undoubtedly  gave  cred- 
ence to  the  many  details  grouped  by  the 
Kabbalists  about  him,  yet  his  views  are  more 
rational  than  even  those  of  Maimonides. 

In  his  interesting  disputation  with  Pablo 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       165 

Christiani,  a  converted  Jew,  which  took  place 
in  Barcelona,  before  the  king  of  Aragon 
(1263),  and  lasted  four  days,  Nahmanides 
expressed  his  views  about  the  Jewish  belief 
in  the  coming  of  a  Messiah.  The  questions 
under  discussion  were:  i.  whether  the  Mes- 
siah had  appeared  or  not;  2.  whether  the 
Messiah,  according  to  the  prophecies  of  the 
Bible,  was  to  be  considered  as  God  or  as 
man;  3.  whether  Judaism  or  Christianity 
was  the  true  faith.  After  declaring  that  the 
Talmudic  Haggadah,  the  source  of  Pablo's 
arguments  against  Judaism,  was  to  be  re- 
garded only  as  a  collection  of  sermons,  carry- 
ing with  it  no  binding  authority,  Nahma- 
nides proclaimed  his  belief  in  a  human  Mes- 
siah, a  king  of  flesh  and  blood. 

In  a  book  of  his,  "  The  Date  of  the  Re- 
demption," quoted  by  Azariah  de  Rossi, 
Nahmanides'  view  of  the  Messiah  is  given 
in  more  precise  terms  : 

"The  question  of  the  Messiah  is  not  of  that  dog- 
matic importance  to  the  Jews  that  Christians  imagine. 
For  even  if  Jews  supposed  their  sins  to  be  so  great 


l66  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

that  they  forfeited  all  the  promises  made  to  them  in 
the  Scriptures,  or  that,  on  some  hidden  ground,  it 
would  please  the  Almighty  never  to  restore  their 
national  independence,  this  would  in  no  way  alter 
the  obligations  of  Jews  toward  the  Torah.  Nor 
is  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  desired  by  the  Jews 
as  an  end  in  itself.  For  it  is  not  the  goal  of  their 
hopes  that  they  shall  be  able  again  to  eat  of  the  fruit 
of  Palestine,  or  enjoy  other  pleasures  there;  not 
even  the  chance  of  the  restoration  of  sacrifices  and 
the  worship  of  the  Temple  is  the  greatest  of  Jewish 
expectations  (connected  with  the  appearance  of  the 
Messiah).  What  makes  them  long  for  his  coming, 
is  the  hope  that  they  will  then  witness,  in  the  com- 
pany of  the  prophets  and  priests,  a  greater  spread 
of  purity  and  holiness  than  is  now  possible.  In  other 
words  the  possibility  for  them  to  live  a  holy  life 
after  the  will  of  God  will  be  greater  than  now. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  considering  that  such  a  godly 
life  under  a  Christian  government  requires  greater 
sacrifices  than  it  would  under  a  Jewish  king;  and, 
considering  again  that  the  merits  and  rewards  of 
a  good  act  increase  with  the  obstacles  that  are  in 
the  way  of  executing  it — considering  this,  a  Jew 
might  even  prefer  to  live  under  the  king  of  Aragon 
than  under  the  Messiah,  where  he  would  perforce 
act  in  accordance  with  the  precepts  of  the  Torah."  ^ 

During  the  disputation,  Nahmanides  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  disprove  the 
assumption  of  the  Christian  theologians  that 
the  prophecies  about  the  future  referred  to 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       167 

the  advent  of  Jesus,  as  his  coming  had  not 
inaugurated  the  universal  peace  which  is  the 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Messianic  period 
as  pictured  by  the  prophets.  Turning  to  the 
king,  Nahmanides  boldly  exclaimed,  "  It 
behooves  thee  and  thy  knights,  O  King,  to 
put  an  end  to  all  warfare,  as  the  beginning 
of  the  Messianic  era  demands."  * 

In  a  sermon  on  the  value  of  the  Torah,' 
delivered  in  Barcelona,  he  shows  how  the 
stories  and  events  narrated  in  the  Bible  are 
the  prototypes  of  the  events  that  have  hap- 
pened throughout  human  history.  The 
Torah  is  "  a  history  of  humanity  written  in 
advance."  He  compares  the  six  days  of 
creation  with  the  six  millenniums  of  the 
world's  existence.  On  the  sixth  day,  ani- 
mals were  created  first,  and  then  came  man, 
the  animals  representing  the  nations  of  the 
earth  to  whom  the  Jews  are  subjected,*  and 
man  the  Messiah,  man  in  the  image  of 
God,  who  will  appear  during  the  sixth  mil- 
lennium.    The  Sabbath  represents  the  sev- 


l68  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

enth  millennium,  when  the  life  of  the  future 
will  be  inaugurated,  and  he  considers  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  Sabbatical  year,  the  jubilee 
year,  and  the  counting  of  the  *Omer "  as  other 
indications  that  the  world  will  change  its 
present  form  at  the  end  of  six  thousand  years 
of  its  existence.  The  battle  of  Moses  and 
Joshua  against  the  Amalekites  foreshadows 
the  warfare  that  Elijah  and  the  Messiah  son 
of  Joseph  will  wage  against  Edom.°  The 
miracle  of  the  bodily  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  although  unexplainable  by  the  ordi- 
nary standards  of  reason,  is  still,  according 
to  Nahmanides'  theory,  intelligible,  since, 
if  the  body  acts  in  conformity  with  the 
godly  nature  of  the  soul,  it  may  be  trans- 
formed into  a  pure  essence,  and  preserved 
for  eternity/  Thus,  Nahmanides,  though 
not  willing  to  recognize  the  Messianic  belief 
as  an  essential  principle  of  Judaism,  and 
avoiding  the  extravagances  in  which  his 
contemporaries  and  immediate  followers  in- 
dulged, clung  to  the  belief  in  all  its  important 
details. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       169 

During  his  time,  many  Important  changes 
occurred  in  Palestine,  where  Nahmanides 
spent  his  last  years,  and  where  he  produced 
his  greatest  works.  The  Tartars,  under 
Sultan  Hulagu  (1260),  ravaged  the  land, 
overthrew  the  Eastern  Caliphate,  and  forced 
their  way  into  Palestine,  bringing  ruin  and 
desolation  wherever  they  came,  and  sparing 
neither  Christian  nor  Mohammedan.  The 
former  regarded  them  as  the  Antichrist,  who 
is  expected  to  appear  before  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Jesus.  The  Jews,  likewise  expecting 
some  great  change  in  their  unfortunate  lot, 
identified  the  "  ugly  men  from  the  East  " 
w^ith  the  army  of  King  Armilus,  which  is  to 
conquer  both  Edom  and  Ishmael,  and  be  in 
its  turn  conquered  by  the  Messiah.  At  this 
opportune  time,  and  under  the  favorite  name 
of  Simeon  ben  Johai,*  a  new  revelation  ap- 
peared. However,  it  contained  no  new  ele- 
ments ;  but  the  events  of  the  day  were  made 
to  prognosticate  the  speedy  coming  of  the 
Messiah  in  it. 


I70  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Meanwhile,  in  Southern  Europe,  the 
Kabbalistic  movement  spread  and  strength- 
ened, and  some  of  the  Kabbalists  no  longer 
satisfied  themselves  with  speculating  about 
the  Ten  Sefiroth  and  the  permutations  and 
combinations  of  the  letters  of  God's  name. 
They  insisted  that  they  possessed  the  key  to 
certain  formulas  by  which  they  could  come 
into  direct  communion  with  God,  and  obtain 
the  power  of  prophecy. 

Abraham  Abulafia  of  Tudela  (1240- 
1291),  endowed  with  a  lively  imagination 
and  considerable  knowledge,  proclaimed 
himself  a  prophet  and  a  worker  of  miracles, 
and  lectured  on  his  theory  of  Kabbalah  (the 
active  Kabbalah )°  in  various  towns  of 
Northern  Spain,  where  he  secured  a  number 
,of  admirers  and  devotees.  After  failing  in 
his  attempt  to  convert  Pope  Martin  IV  to 
Judaism  (1281),  and  escaping  the  stake  by 
mere  chance,  Abulafia  proceeded  to  the 
island  of  Sicily.  In  Messina,  after  a  cordial 
reception,  he  announced  himself  as  the  Mes- 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH        171 

siah  (1284),  and  put  forth  his  claim  to  that 
distinction  in  writing,"  making  the  year  1290 
the  date  of  his  appearance.  There  were 
sceptics  in  Sicily,  and  they  turned  for  infor- 
mation to  the  recognized  authority  in  Span- 
ish Jewry,  Rabbi  Solomon  ben  Adereth,  who 
replied  that  he  had  heard  of  Abulafia,  but  he 
considered  him  a  mere  adventurer,  and 
warned  the  Jews  of  Sicily  against  following 
his  extravagant  teachings."^  This  letter  en- 
tirely crushed  Abulafia's  aspirations  to  be 
recognized  as  the  Messiah.  After  a  few  at- 
tempts to  restore  his  reputation,  he  disap- 
peared from  the  scene  of  activity. 

Two  other  adventurers  then  appeared  in 
Spain,  one  in  the  village  of  Ayllon,  in  the 
province  of  Segovia,  and  the  other  in  the 
more  important  town  of  Avila.  They  pro- 
claimed themselves  prophets,  and  announced 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah  in  mystic  lan- 
guage. The  prophet  of  Avila,  Nissim  ben 
Abraham,  gained  many  adherents.  In  spite 
of  the  warnings  of  the  venerable  Rabbi  of 


172  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Barcelona,  they  awaited  the  advent  of  the 
Messiah  with  intense  excitement  on  the  day 
pointed  out  by  the  prophet.  The  day  came, 
but  the  impostor-prophet  did  not  appear. 
Many  Jews  subsequently  embraced  Christi- 
anity, and  others  are  said  to  have  fallen  into 
a  state  of  melancholy." 

It  is  not  fair,  as  some  of  our  historians 
have  done,  to  stamp  as  impostors  all  who 
from  time  to  time  have  arisen  in  Israel,  and 
deluded  their  brethren  with  vain  hopes. 
Some  of  them  undoubtedly  were  self-con- 
fessed impostors,  but  most  of  them  were  de- 
luded enthusiasts,  who  actually  believed  in 
their  superior  powers  and  in  the  Divine  mis- 
sion which  they  imagined  to  have  been  in- 
trusted to  them.  Abulafia  probably  be- 
longed to  the  latter  class,  and,  permeated  as 
he  was  with  the  revelations  he  made  in  the 
science  of  Kabbalah,  the  only  true  study  ac- 
cording to  the  conception  of  many  of  the 
most  learned  Jews  of  that  time,  he  believed 
himself  to  be  a  special  favorite  of  God,  to 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       173 

whom  mysteries  were  revealed  and  the  fate 
of  his  people  intrusted. 

The  motives  actuating  Moses  de  Leon 
(1250-1305),  his  younger  contemporary,  do" 
not  seem  so  free  from  guile.  Whether  the 
author  of  the  Zoliar ""  was  Rabbi  Simeon  ben 
Johai  or  Abulafia  or  de  Leon  himself,"  is 
immaterial  for  our  purpose.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  de  Leon  was  the  first  to  publish  this 
book  and  edit  it  with  numerous  additions  of 
his  own.  It  is,  indeed,  wonderful  to  see  how 
quickly  it  became  the  authority,  not  only  for 
the  Kabbalists,  but  for  almost  all  Israel,  and 
how  great  its  influence  has  been  on  Jewish 
life  and  habits.  In  many  communities,  the 
study  of  the  Talmud  was  soon  superseded  by 
that  of  the  Zohar,  for  it  was  regarded  as  a 
direct  revelation  from  God  to  the  Tanna 
Rabbi  Simeon  ben  Johai,  and  as  possessed 
of  the  same  sanctity  as  the  Bible.  To  the 
present  day,  many  Jews  believe,  that  the 
reading  of  the  Zoliar  in  itself,  even  though 
its  contents  be  not  understood,  is  sufficient 


174  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

to  purify  their  souls  and  bring  them  into 
communion  with  God.  Customs  and  cere- 
monies enjoined  in  the  Zohar  were  subse- 
quently incorporated  in  the  Shiilhan  'Aruch, 
and  are  now  observed  by  most  Jews,  even 
by  such  as  have  discarded  the  belief  in  the 
Divine  character  of  the  Zohar. 

As  may  be  expected,  the  Messianic  idea 
occupies  a  very  prominent  position  in  the 
Zohar.  In  fact,  in  some  places  it  is  ex- 
pressly stated,  that  the  revelation  of  the 
Zohar  was  to  be  made  only  in  the  end  of 
days,  in  the  last  generation  before  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messiah/'  The  time  of  the  Mes- 
siah's coming  is  fixed  in  the  Zohar  by  a 
mystic  calculation  of  the  numerical  values  of 
the  letters  of  the  Ineffable  Name  of  God. 
The  He  stands  for  five  thousand,  the  five 
thousand  years  which  Israel  spent  in  slavery 
and  subjection  under  foreign  powers.  After 
the  five  thousand  years  shall  have  passed, 
and  also  sixty  years  {Yod  times  Waw,  lo 
X  6  =  60)  in  the  sixth  millennium,  Israel 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       175 

will  rise  from  the  ground,  and  during  every 
sixty  years  following  this  the  kindness  of 
God  toward  Israel  will  increase,  until  600  in 
the  sixth  millennium,  when  the  gates  of 
heavenly  wisdom  will  be  opened,  the  foun- 
tains of  wisdom  from  below  will  gush  forth, 
and  the  world  will  be  prepared  to  enter  upon 
the  seventh  millennium,  as  one  prepares  him- 
self on  Friday  for  the  approach  of  the  Sab- 
bath." From  this  calculation  it  appears  that 
the  Zohar  expected  the  Messiah  to  appear  in 
the  year  1300,  which  would  mark  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Messianic  era.  Other  dates 
(1328,^^  1648  for  the  resurrection '')  are  also 
mentioned,  but  these  were  probably  interpo- 
lated later  by  those  who  wished  to  bring  the 
time  up  to  their  own  age.  This  calculation 
is  a  fair  specimen  of  the  Kabbalistic  foun- 
dations for  Messianic  hopes.  In  all  such 
calculations,  the  holy  numbers  seven  and 
three  play  an  important  part.  The  Zohar- 
istic  conceptions  are  so  characteristic  that  I 
shall  give  some  of  the  details  of  the  Messi- 


176  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

anic  hope  as  it  finds  expression  in  the  pages 
of  this  book. 

According  to  the  prevalent  notion,  the 
Zohar  predicts  that  the  period  preceding  the 
Messianic  age  will  be  one  of  terrible  misfor- 
tunes to  Israel.  All  the  nations  will  vie  with 
each  other  in  oppressing  Israel,  and  "the 
last  misfortunes  shall  make  them  forget  the 
earlier."  Before  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 
a  column  of  fire  will  appear  in  the  world, 
and  will  remain  standing  for  forty  days  in 
the  sight  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
Then  the  King  Messiah  will  be  aroused  to 
proceed  from  Paradise,  from  that  place 
which  is  called  "  the  bird's  nest."  "  He  will 
first  make  his  appearance  in  Galilee,  because 
Galilee  was  the  first  province  to  be  destroyed 
by  the  Romans.  A  brilliant  star  will  then 
appear  in  the  skies,  surrounded  by  seven 
other  stars,  which  will  wage  war  with  the 
brilliant  star  three  times  daily,  for  a  period 
of  seventy  days,  and  be  swallowed  up  by  it 
every    night    and    ejected    every    morning. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       177 

After  the  seventy  days,  the  stars  will  dis- 
appear. The  Messiah  will  be  concealed  in 
the  column  of  fire,  invisible  for  twelve 
months,  after  the  lapse  of  which  he  will 
be  taken  up  to  heaven,  crowned  king,  and 
endowed  with  all  the  strength  and  dignity  of 
a  king.  He  will  then  descend  upon  earth, 
and  the  column  of  fire  will  again  be  made 
visible.  The  Messiah  will  become  known 
throughout  the  world,  and  the  nations  as 
well  as  many  unbelieving  Jews  will  come  to 
wage  war  with  him.  Then  the  world  will 
become  dark  for  fifteen  days,  and  many  will 
die  during  that  time."** 

In  the  year  73  of  the  sixth  thousand  since 
the  creation  of  the  w^orld  (13 13),  all  the  na- 
tions will  be  gathered  in  Rome,  and  God  will 
rain  upon  them  with  fire,  hail,  and  stones, 
and  they  will  be  destroyed  from  the  world, 
except  those  kings  who  did  not  come  to 
Rome.  These  will  still  desire  to  wage  war 
with  the  Messiah,  and  Ishmael  will  join  them 
in  their  siege  of  Jerusalem.  But  "  He  who 
sits  in  heaven  laughs."     Many  will  join  the 


178  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Jews  in  the  worship  of  God,  and  will  thus 
become  new  creatures,  for  God  will  produce 
new  souls  for  all  those  who  will  be  left,  and 
who  will  thus  be  prepared  to  enter  the  sev- 
enth millennium.'^ 

In  another  place  "  the  details  are  described 
in  the  following  manner : 

When  God  wishes  to  rebuild  Jerusalem,  a  fixed 
star  will  wage  war  with  seven  shooting  stars.  .  .  .  On 
the  first  day  when  the  star  appears  in  Rome,  three 
high  towers  will  crumble,  and  the  great  palace  (the 
Vatican?)  will  fall,  and  the  ruler  of  the  city  (the 
Pope?)  will  die.  Then  the  star  will  become  apparent 
to  the  whole  world.  At  that  time  great  wars  will 
be  waged  in  the  world,  in  all  the  four  corners,  and 
the  people  will  have  no  belief.  When  the  star  ap- 
pears, a  mighty  king  will  arise,  and  conquer  all  the 
nations  and  rule  over  them.  When  the  star  dis- 
appears, Palestine  will  be  shaken  forty-five  miles  from 
the  place  where  the  Temple  stood.  .  .  .  Then  the 
Messiah  will  be  revealed  to  the  whole  world,  and 
the  rule  will  be  delivered  into  his  hands.  At  the 
time  of  his  coming  the  world  will  be  in  great  distress, 
and  Israel's  enemies  will  become  strong,  but  the 
Messiah  will  avenge  himself  on  "  guilty  Edom,"  and 
the  whole  land  of  Seir  will  be  consumed  by  fire. 
Then  God  will  revive  the  dead. 

The  state  of  affairs  in  the  world  at  the 
time  of  the  Messiah's  coming  is  dwelt  upon 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       179 

frequently  in  the  Zohar,  and  the  elaboration 
of  the  details,  the  many  miracles  and  won- 
ders to  be  shown  at  that  time  might  stagger 
the  imagination  of  the  most  fanciful,  invent- 
ive dreamer. 

There  are  various  references  in  the  Zo- 
har^ to  the  idea  of  a  suffering  Messiah. 
Legends  tell  how  the  Messiah  in  Paradise  is 
moved  by  what  the  souls,  who  have  come 
back  from  their  periodic  journeys  in  the 
world,  relate  of  the  suffering  and  tribulation 
they  beheld  among  men,  and  especially 
among  Israel  in  exile.  The  Messiah  enters 
"  the  palace  of  diseases,'"*  and  takes  upon 
himself  all  the  maladies  destined  for  Israel, 
and  thus  alleviates  Israel's  sufferings  and 
makes  them  bearable.  In  this  manner,  the 
Messiah  constitutes  himself  the  sin-offering, 
which  can  no  longer  be  brought  by  Israel, 
since  the  Temple  is  destroyed.  The  punish- 
ment is  not  entirely  avoided,  but  merely  post- 
poned until  ''  the  world  to  come."  ''  The 
miracle  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  is 


l8o  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

treated  In  the  Zohar  as  a  matter  of  course. 
In  accordance  with  the  KabbaHstic  doctrine, 
that  the  Bible  cloaks  deeply  significant  mean- 
ings in  simple  language,  many  Scriptural 
passages  are  distorted  from  their  original 
meaning,  in  order  to  prove  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  The  resurrection  will  take 
place  forty  years  after  the  advent  of  the 
Messiah,  and  the  revived  bodies  will  be  as 
fresh  as  a  tliree-years'  old  child,  and  as  holy 
as  angels.'^ 

Except  in  the  elaboration  of  details,  the 
Zohar  adds  very  little  to  the  prevalent  Mes- 
sianic conception.  The  pre-existence  of  the 
Messiah  is  assumed,  and  his  almost  Divine 
character  repeatedly  emphasized.  He  is  suf- 
fering for  the  sins  of  his  people,  and  helps 
them  carry  the  burden  of  punishment.""^ 
Messiah  son  of  Joseph  is  also  mentioned  in 
the  Zohar  as  occupying  a  seat  in  the  "  lower 
heights  " "'  of  the  heavenly  abodes,  but  very 
little  activity  is  assigned  to  him.  The 
KabbaHstic  conception  of  the  highest  attaiii- 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       l8l 


ment  of  the  Messianic  age  is  the  opening  of 
the  gates  of  wisdom  and  the  revelation  of  the 
secrets  of  the  law,  by  which  the  Zohar  means 
nothing  else  than  the  universal  diffusion  of 
Kabbalistic  wisdom,  the  only  real  wisdom, 
the  secrets  directly  imparted  by  God  to  the 
pious  of  all  generations.  When  this  is  ac- 
complished, humanity  will  be  ready  to  enter 
upon  the  seventh  millennium,  the  millennium 
of  rest  and  Divine  contemplation.  This  idea 
is  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  main  principle 
of  the  Zohar,  that  the  soul  of  man  is  not  a 
creation,  but  an  emanation  from  God.  The 
highest  point  of  human  perfection  will  be 
attained  when,  through  constant  study  and 
devotion,  inducing  a  state  of  ecstasy,  the  soul 
of  man  will  be  reunited  with  its  source,  the 
Divine  soul. 

The  Zohar  was  accorded  a  heartier  recep- 
tion than  any  book  in  the  world's  literature. 
It  immediately  placed  the  Kabbalah  upon  a 
firm  basis,  and  was  regarded  for  many  cen- 
turies as  the  Bible  of  the  Kabbalists.     Yet 


l82  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

we  must  not  imagine  that  the  Jewish  world 
as  a  whole  became  absorbed  In  the  Kabbalah, 
and  produced  nothing  else.  At  the  same 
time  many  poets  and  philosophers,  statesmen 
and  diplomats,  flourished  in  Spain  and  in 
Portugal,  some  of  whom  diverged  very  con- 
siderably from  the  teachings  of  the  Zohar, 
Thus,  a  renowned  Rabbi,  Hayyim  ben  Ga- 
lipapa  (13 10-1380),  declared  in  an  open  let- 
ter,'' that  all  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  of 
Daniel  with  regard  to  the  Messiah  had  been 
fulfilled  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and 
the  Messianic  belief  at  present  had  no  Scrip- 
tural basis. 

Joseph  Albo  (i  380-1444)  also  took  a 
more  rational  view  of  the  Messiah.  He  re- 
peatedly made  it  clear  that  though  It  is 
proper  for  every  Jew  to  believe  in  his  com- 
ing, yet  the  belief  is  not  essential  to  Juda- 
ism.'" Albo,  however,  could  not  agree  with 
those  that  considered  the  Messianic  belief  as 
merely  sanctioned  by  tradition  and  without 
Biblical  basis.     He  held  that  the  unfulfilled 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       183 

prophecies  in  Ezekiel,  Jeremiah,  and  MalachI 
must  refer  to  the  remote  future/^  These  ar- 
guments were  used  by  Albo  in  the  celebrated 
disputation  carried  on  between  him  and  other 
Jewish  notables,  at  Tortosa  (1413-14),  with 
the  apostate  Geronimo  de  Santa  Fe,  who 
wished  to  prove  that  the  Jews  should  accept 
the  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  since  it  was  estab- 
lished by  Bible  and  Talmud/' 

The  fourteenth  century  left  in  its  trail  the 
blood  of  thousands  of  Jewish  victims  to  the 
dissolute,  cruel,  and  vicious  rule  of  the  Chris- 
tian monarchs  and  potentates  of  Western 
Europe.  The  year  1391  will  ever  stand  out 
as  the  most  fateful  year  in  Jewish  history 
during  the  exile.  The  disgraceful  acts  of 
the  Christian  magnates  against  the  Jews  can 
be  atoned  for  only  by  many  centuries  of  tol- 
erance and  good-will.  The  immorality  of 
the  Church  cost  Israel  many  souls.  Thou- 
sands were  slaughtered,  thousands  were  ban- 
ished from  their  homes,  and  thousands  were 
forced  to  baptism.     A  writer  of  that  time 


l84  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

gives  a  striking  picture  of  the  horrors  that 
beset  the  Jewish  communities  of  Castile,  in 
the  following  words : 

In  truth,  plunders  followed  upon  plunders/^  money 
vanished  from  the  purse,^*  souls  from  the  bodies ;  ^^ 
all  the  sufferings  that  were  believed  to  precede  the 
Messianic  period  are  here — but  the  redeemer  has  not 
come.  I  will  not  attempt  to  recount  all  the  miseries ; 
they  are  more  numerous  than  sand.^"' 

The  Rabbis  were  compelled  to  enter  into 
discussions  with  apostate  Jews,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  royalty  and  the  clergy,  and  the  re- 
sults of  these  discussions  were  invariably 
massacres  and  forced  conversions.  Kabbal- 
istic  dreamers  and  impostors  soon  sprang  up 
armed  with  Biblical  and  Talmudic  passages 
as  evidence  of  the  approach  of  the  Messianic 
age.  Moses  Botarel,  of  Cisneros,  in  Castile, 
went  still  further,  and  declared  that  he  had 
been  anointed  by  Elijah  the  prophet,  and 
should  be  recognized  by  all  Rabbis  as  the 
head  of  the  Sanhedrin.  Botarel's  end  is  un- 
known, but  some  of  his  Kabbalistic  writings 
are  still  extant."     The  dejection  of  the  Jew- 


DEVELOPMENT.  IN  KABBALAH       185 

ish  spirit  in  this  time  can  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  no  less  a  man  than  the  philosopher 
Hasdai  Crescas  proclaimed  his  belief  in  Bo- 
tarel's  Messiahship,  though  only  a  few  years 
earlier,  Rabbi  Nissim  ben  Reuben,  of  Barce- 
lona, a  devout  Talmudist,  had  found  it  neces- 
sary to  protest  against  a  general  belief, 
among  the  Jews  of  Castile,  that  Samuel  Abu- 
lafia,  the  favorite  of  the  king  Don  Pedro, 
and  the  chief  contributor  to  the  erection  of 
the  magnificent  synagogue  in  Toledo,  was 
the  Messiah,  and  his  great  eminence  a  sug- 
gestion of  "  the  sceptre  of  Judah."  "^  The 
unfortunate  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Spain 
continued,  with  very  few  interruptions, 
throughout  the  fifteenth  century,  until  the 
time  when  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  selected 
the  Jewish  subjects  of  their  dominions  as  a 
thank-offering  to  their  God  for  the  assistance 
afforded  them  in  their  triumph  over  the 
Moors.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Spain  in  1492  closed  one  of  the  gloomiest 
chapters  in  Jewish  history. 


1 86  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  last  link  in  the  chain  of  Spanish-Jew- 
ish philosophers  and  thinkers,  Don  Isaac  ben 
Judah  Abarbanel  (1437-1509),  a  clear  and 
practical  thinker,  was  also  swayed  by  the 
Kabbalistic  influences  of  his  age,  and  in- 
dulged in  Messianic  speculations  in  accord- 
ance with  the  prevalent  methods  of  his  time. 
The  appalling  misery  that  beset  the  poor 
Spanish  fugitives  prompted  Abarbanel  to 
compose  three  books  ^'  in  which  the  speedy 
advent  of  the  Messiah  is  emphasized,  and  the 
date  accurately  determined.  This  juggling 
with  Biblical  words  and  phrases  to  find  out 
the  date  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and 
thus  hold  forth  some  tangible  hope  to  his 
despondent  and  forlorn  brethren,  becomes 
pathetic  when  we  remember  it  to  be  the  work 
of  a  venerable  sage,  laden  with  years,  fallen 
from  his  lofty  estate,  himself,  like  Jeremiah 
of  old,  a  witness  to  the  affliction  of  his  peo- 
ple, whom  he  loved  so  much,  and  whom  he 
was  unable  to  help  in  their  dire  misfortune, 
renouncing  for  their  sake  all  ambition  and 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       187 

glory,  and  willing  to  spend  his  later  years  in 
entire  obscurity.  The  picture  becomes  still 
more  pathetic  when  we  remember  the  practi- 
cal statesmanship,  the  lucid  and  rational  in- 
terpretations of  Biblical  texts  by  this  pioneer 
in  the  long  list  of  modern  interpreters  of 
the  Bible." 

Abarbanel  criticises  those  Jewish  philoso- 
phers very  severely  who,  unlike  Maimo- 
nides,  did  not  regard  the  Messianic  belief  a 
cardinal  principle  of  Judaism.  The  shafts 
of  his  criticism  are  especially  directed  against 
Joseph  Albo.  He  allows  no  opportunity  to 
pass  for  showing  the  fallacy  in  the  argu- 
ments of  the  author  of  the  'Ikkarim.*^  His 
own  Messianic  conception  he  bases  on  the 
Biblical  prophecies,  from  which  he  deduces 
ten  elements,  including  the  chief  rational 
features  of  the  Messianic  belief,  stripped  of 
all  the  fanciful  and  supernatural  accretions 
of  the  Rabbis  and  the  Kabbalists.  God  will 
send  a  redeemer  of  the  House  of  David,  who 
will  lead  the  despised  nation  back  to  Jerusa- 


THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


lem,  where  the  Temple  will  be  rebuilt,  and 
the  nation  again  sanctified.  Prophecy  will 
return  to  Israel,  miracles  will  again  be  done 
in  its  behalf,  there  will  be  material  pros- 
perity and  blessings  innumerable,  and  Israel 
will  be  exiled  no  more.  All  the  nations  of 
the  earth  will  accept  the  monotheistic  reli- 
gion, when  God's  wrath  has  been  poured  out 
upon  them.  After  the  return  to  Palestine, 
the  dead  will  be  revived.''' 

In  spite  of  this  rational  view,  Abarbanel 
could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  calculate 
the  date  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 
After  showing  that  the  prohibitions  of  the 
Talmud  and  of  later  writers  refer,  not  to 
calculations  made  by  way  of  interpretations 
of  Biblical  passages,  but  to  those  based  on 
astrological  speculations,"^  Abarbanel  de- 
duces, from  various  Scriptural  passages,  es- 
pecially from  the  mysterious  allusions  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  that  the  Messiah  will  come 
in  5263  A.  M.  (1503  C.  E.),  and  that  the 
Messianic  age  will  set  in  with  the  fall  of 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH        189 

Rome  in  1531,  four  Sabbatical  years  later. 
He  supports  his  deductions  by  many  Biblical 
and  Talmudic  passages.**  His  own  dictum 
about  Rabbi  Akiba's  belief  in  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Bar-Cochba,  that  "  it  happens  to 
every  wise  man  that  he  thinks  and  believes 
what  his  heart  desires,"  *^  can  be  justly  ap- 
plied to  himself.  The  misery  of  his  breth- 
ren was  so  great,  and  his  faith  in  the  justice 
of  God  and  in  the  future  glory  of  Israel  so 
strong,  that  he  could  not  but  conceive  the 
redemption  to  be  very  near.  If  Israel  suc- 
cumbs to  its  already  almost  unbearable  suf- 
ferings, all  the  promises  of  God  will  remain 
unfulfilled.  But  this  is  impossible  to  Israel's 
God  of  truth.  Abarbanel,  like  many  of  his 
predecessors,  lived  to  see  his  calculations 
proved  false. 

Abarbanel's  calculations  produced  the 
very  results  so  feared  by  the  Rabbis.  In 
1502,  a  German  Jew,  Asher  Lammlein,  en- 
couraged by  the  predictions  of  Abarbanel, 
declared  himself  a  forerunner  of  the  Mes- 


I90  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

siah,  proclaiming  that  if  the  Jews  would 
spend  six  months  in  repentance  and  chastise- 
ment and  in  dispensing  charity,  the  Messiah 
would  appear,  preceded  by  a  column  of  fire 
and  a  column  of  smoke,  like  those  which 
went  before  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and  would  bring  the  Jews  back  to  Palestine. 
The  sign  of  his  coming  would  be  the  sudden 
downfall  of  many  Christian  churches. 
Lammlein  immediately  secured  a  large  num- 
ber of  adherents,*"  including  even  Christians, 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Venice, 
where  many  Jews  followed  his  behests,  neg- 
lecting all  their  affairs,  and  spending  their 
time  in  fasting,  prayer,  and  self-castigation. 
This  year  is  known  in  Jewish  history  as  the 
"  year  of  penitence."  But  all  these  hopes 
came  to  a  premature  end  with  the  death  of 
the  prophet,  and  Isaac  Abarbanel  lived  to  see 
Christianity  embraced  by  many  Jews,  de- 
luded by  the  hopes  stirred  up  by  his  books 
and  by  the  prophecies  of  Lammlein. 

Despite  frequent  disappointments,  the  peo- 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       191 

pie  did  not  lose  faith  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
Messianic  prophecies.  Indeed,  this  hope, 
misguided  and  fraught  with  incalculable 
evils  as  it  frequently  was,  is  one  of  the  sub- 
lime features  of  the  Jewish  religion.  To 
the  unfortunate  Marranos,  tortured  in  body 
and  mind,  it  was  the  only  comfort  and  con- 
solation. Many  of  them  believed  the  pro- 
phecy of  a  girl  of  fifteen  years  of  age,  that 
the  Messiah  had  revealed  himself  to  her,  and 
taken  her  up  to  heaven,  where  she  saw, 
seated  on  golden  chairs,  all  the  martyrs  that 
had  been  burnt  at  the  stake,  and  that  he 
had  promised  soon  to  reveal  himself  to  the 
whole  world.  They  Immediately  threw  off 
the  false  mantle  of  Christianity,  and  pro- 
fessed Judaism  in  public.  The  result  was, 
that  thirty-eight  Marranos  were  burnt  at  the 
stake  In  Toledo.  But  the  greater  the  perse- 
cution, the  stronger  became  their  hope,  the 
readier  were  they  to  lend  a  willing  ear  to 
Messianic  pretenders  and  enthusiasts. 
At  that  time,  there  arose  a  pretender,  most 


192  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

important  not  only  because  of  the  novelty  of 
his  scheme,  but  also  because  of  the  great  in- 
fluence he  exerted  wherever  he  appeared. 
David  Reubeni,  who  came  from  the  East 
with  a  special  message,  not  to  the  Jews,  but 
to  the  Christian  rulers  of  Europe,  at  first  put 
forth  no  Messianic  claims.  In  1522  he  left 
his  native  land,  and  began  to  tour  Asia.  To 
all  whom  he  met,  he  related  his  mission  in 
behalf  of  his  brother,  the  ruler  of  a  Jewish 
kingdom  in  Chaibar,  composed  of  fugitives 
from  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  who,  he 
said,  had  under  his  command  three  hundred 
thousand  chosen  warriors,  ready  to  over- 
power the  Turks  and  wrest  Palestine  from 
their  hands,  provided  the  Christian  nations 
would  supply  them  with  fire-arms.  A  man 
of  great  prudence  and  discretion,  he  always 
surrounded  his  tales  with  mystic  and  secret 
allusions,  so  as  to  arouse  the  curiosity  and 
interest  of  the  Jews.  Despite  their  advances, 
he  took  a  distant  and  haughty  attitude 
toward  them,  maintaining  that  his  business 
was  with  the  Pope. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       193 

He  was  most  favorably  received  by  Pope 
Clement  VII,  who,  harassed  on  all  sides  by 
the  constant  growth  of  the  Reformation,  re- 
garded with  especial  favor  the  plan  by  which 
the  Jews  should  drive  the  most  dangerous 
enemy  of  Christendom  out  of  the  Holy  Land. 
This  procured  many  adherents  among  the 
Jews  for  Reubeni,  and  many  costly  gifts 
were  sent  him  by  wealthy  Jews,  but  he  main- 
tained his  aloofness,  and  abode  by  his  purely 
political  scheme.  As  his  name  and  mission 
became  more  widely  known,  he  even  received 
a  call  from  the  king  of  Portugal,  to  visit 
him  in  his  court. 

We  can  hardly  imagine  the  feelings  of  the 
poor  Marranos  of  Portugal,  on  the  eve  of  the 
introduction  of  the  Inquisition,  when  they 
heard  that  a  Jew  had  been  entertained  at  the 
royal  palace,  and  shown  all  marks  of  esteem 
and  confidence  by  the  king.  They  did  not 
ask  whether  he  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
Messiah,  they  would  have  believed  it  even 
if  he  had  denied  it.     All  eyes  were  fastened 


194  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

on  the  man  from  the  East,  and  everywhere 
reigned  the  tensest  expectancy  of  speedy 
redemption.  Reubeni,  however,  knowing 
full  well  the  danger  of  his  position,  gave  very 
little  encouragement  to  these  Messianic 
dreams  and  speculations. 

The  enthusiastic  hope  soon  spread  far  and 
wide.  Among  those  whom  it  affected  was 
a  noble  and  talentf^d  youth,  who  sacrificed 
his  ambitions  and  his  life  in  its  behalf. 
Diogo  Pires  (i  501-1532),  born  a  New 
Christian,  by  his  talents  and  gentle  bearing 
rose  to  the  high  position  of  royal  secretary 
to  a  high  court  of  justice.  He  was  appar- 
ently acquainted  with  Hebrew  and  Rabbinic 
lore  from  his  earliest  youth,  and  he  had  also 
acquired  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  Kabbalah. 
His  poetic  mind  was  captivated  by  Reubeni 's 
mission,  and  it  became  filled  with  Messianic 
dreams  and  visions. 

He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Reubeni, 
and,  in  spite  of  a  cool  reception,  he  decided  to 
undergo  circumcision  and  announce  himself 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       195 

publicly  as  a  Jew.  Subsequently,  under  the 
name  of  Solomon  Molcho,  he  departed  for 
Turkey,  where  he  created  a  great  sensation. 
Even  Joseph  Caro,  the  famous  compiler  of 
the  Shulhan  'Aruch,  himself  a  devotee  of  the 
Kabbalah,  placed  implicit  faith  in  the  young 
proselyte,  and  declared  that  his  greatest  am- 
bition was  to  die,  with  Molcho,  a  martyr's 
death.  In  Salonica,  Molcho  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm  by  large  audiences, 
who  listened  with  rapt  attention  to  sermons 
in  which  Molcho  preached  his  Messianic 
ideas,  according  to  which  the  reign  of  the 
Messiah  would  commence  with  the  end  of 
the  year  1540  (5300  A.  M.).  The  invasion 
of  Rome  by  the  followers  of  Luther  in 
1527  meant  to  Molcho  that  destruction  of 
Edom  which  all  Jewish  sages  and  writers 
had  prophesied  as  preceding  the  advent  of 
the  Messiah.  The  event  encouraged  Molcho 
still  more  in  his  Messianic  dreams.  He 
left  Turkey  to  visit  Rome  and  announce 
his    mission    to    the    great    potentates    of 


196  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Europe.  In  accordance  with  an  ancient 
tradition,  that  the  Messiah  would  be  found 
at  the  gates  of  Rome  among  the  poor 
and  the  sick,  Molcho  abandoned  his  retinue 
on  arriving  in  the  Eternal  City,  dressed 
himself  in  rags,  blackened  his  face,  and 
for  thirty  days  lived  among  the  beg- 
gars on  the  bridge  of  the  Tiber.  His  sub- 
sequent course  was  determined  by  a  wonder- 
ful dream,  in  which  an  old  man,  who  had 
appeared  to  him  frequently  before,  an- 
nounced to  him  that  Portugal  would  be  vis- 
ited by  an  earthquake,  and  that  Rome  and  a 
Northern  country  would  be  swept  by  a  de- 
structive flood,  after  which  there  would  ap- 
pear in  Rome,  for  a  few  days,  two  comets 
with  golden  tails,  one  indicating  God's  anger 
against  the  sinful  nation,  the  other  His 
mercy  toward  Israel.  In  his  dream,  he  was 
promised,  that  on  reaching  his  thirtieth  year 
he  would  be  raised  to  a  higher  degree,  after 
which  the  Messianic  period  would  com- 
mence. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       197 

Raised  to  the  highest  exultation  by  this 
dream,  Molcho  threw  off  his  disguise,  and 
began  to  preach  his  doctrine  in  pubh'c,  to 
crowded  synagogues,  escaping  the  clutches 
of  the  Inquisition  only  through  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Pope  himself.  Meanwhile,  the 
inundation  of  Rome  actually  took  place  (Oc- 
tober 8,  1530)  ;  Flanders,  the  country  of  the 
North,  also  suffered  from  a  flood ;  a  brilliant 
comet  appeared  in  the  sky;  Lisbon  was 
shaken  by  a  severe  earthquake  (January  26, 
1536),  and  all  signs  pointed  to  the  fulfil- 
ment of  Molcho's  prophecies. 

When  he  again  appeared  in  Rome,  he  was 
greeted  with  marks  of  highest  confidence  and 
reverence,  and  was  regarded  by  all  as  the 
messenger  of  God.  The  Inquisition,  how- 
ever, would  not  be  persuaded  by  dreams,  and 
allowed  no  poetic  fancies  as  evidence  against 
or  for  an  accused  Marrano.  Urged  by  a 
Jewish  physician,  Jacob  Mantin,  it  proceed- 
ed with  Molcho's  prosecution.  In  spite  of 
the  Intercession  of  the  Pope,  he  was  found 


198  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

guilty,  and  condemned  to  be  burnt  at  the 
stake.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  Pope 
succeeded  in  substituting  some  one  else  in  the 
place  of  Molcho,  who  was  kept  hidden  in 
the  Vatican  chambers,  and  thus,  many  be- 
lieved, Molcho  was  saved  from  the  flames  by 
a  miracle.  Of  course,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  Rome,  and  his  end  came  soon  after. 
He  conceived  the  daring  plan  of  visiting 
Emperor  Charles  V,  in  company  with  David 
Reubeni,  and  pleading  the  Jewish  cause  with 
him.  Without  ceremony,  Charles  had  them 
both  put  in  chains  and  carried  to  Mantua 
(1532),  where  Molcho  was  burnt  in  accord- 
ance with  a  decree  issued  by  the  Inquisition, 
while  David,  against  whom  the  Inquisition 
was  powerless,  since  he  was  a  Jew,  remained 
in  the  dungeon  for  three  years.  As  it  ap- 
pears, he  was  at  length  put  to  death  by 
poison." 

Thus  ended  the  wonderful  career  of  these 
two  extraordinary  men,  who  played  so  prom- 
inent a  part  in  Jewish  history.     Reubeni 's 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       199 

plan  was  almost  entirely  of  a  practical  na- 
ture, and  his  means  of  carrying  it  out  were 
diplomatic  and  statesmanlike.  Molcho,  how- 
ever, was  a  real  enthusiast,  whose  sincere  be- 
lief in  his  mission  inspired  others  with  his 
own  confidence.  Even  after  his  death,  many 
learned  and  intelligent  Jews  of  Europe  and 
Asia  believed  he  had  escaped  death  a  second 
time,  and  he  would  soon  re-appear.  Some 
even  declared  they  had  seen  him  eight  days 
after  his  execution.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
deduce,  from  the  writings  of  the  time,  what 
was  the  view  of  the  best  minds  of  the  day, 
for  even  Joseph  Cohen,  the  author  of  'Emek 
ha-Bachah,  a  careful  historian  and  clear 
thinker,  was  dazed  by  the  miraculous  events 
of  the  period,  and  was  uncertain  as  to  what 
judgment  he  should  pass  on  the  whole  affair. 
The  belief  that  the  Messianic  age  was  near, 
was  current  among  the  Jews  of  Italy,  who 
saw  in  the  recent  sack  of  Rome,  in  the 
Lutheran  agitation,  and  in  the  hostility  be- 
tween Pope  and  Emperor,  certain  signs  of 
the  approach  of  the  Messianic  era.** 


200  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Despite  the  failure  of  these  two  pseudo- 
Messiahs,  the  study  of  the  Kabbalah  gained 
large  numbers  of  new  votaries  even  among 
the  most  cultured,  and  even  among  cultured 
Christians.  Foremost  among  them  were 
Isaac  Lurya  (1534-1572)  and  his  disciple, 
Hayyim  Vital  Calabrese  (i  543-1620),  each 
of  whom  believed  himself  to  be  the  Messiah 
son  of  Joseph,  and  proclaimed  his  mission 
to  assembled  multitudes.  Though  their  in- 
fluence upon  the  development  of  the  Kabba- 
lah was  very  great,  their  Messianic  specula- 
tions were  of  little  effect,  except  to  induce 
their  followers  to  apply  themselves  more 
zealously  to  the  study  of  the  Kabbalah, 
through  which,  they  asserted,  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah  son  of  David  would  be  hastened. 

Destructive  though  the  influence  of  the 
Kabbalah  was,  and  conducive  as  its  teach- 
ings were  to  an  unwholesome  and  abnormal 
development  of  the  Jewish  spirit,  it  still  had 
this  good  effect,  that  it  held  out  to  its  adher- 
ents, living  in  the  darkest  of  the  dark  ages, 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  KABBALAH       201 

subject  to  excruciating  pains  and  to  spiritual 
and  mental  agonies,  the  hope  of  a  speedy 
redemption  from  their  troubles.  Rational- 
istic theories  about  the  future  of  Israel  may 
be  sufficient  for  Jews  living  in  comfort  and 
prosperity.  But  the  poor,  unfortunate  Jews 
of  Southern  Europe  during  the  middle  ages, 
living  in  constant  trepidation  and  suspense, 
subject  to  the  tender  mercies  of  a  blood- 
thirsty clergy  and  of  a  fanatic  and  covetous 
royalty,  exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers  at 
every  step — such  unfortunates  needed  some- 
thing more  spiritual,  something  more  myste- 
rious, to  strengthen  them  in  their  faith.  To 
them  the  Kabbalah,  with  its  highly  spiritual 
teachings,  with  its  mystical  promises,  and 
its  extravagant  hopes,  was  the  firmest  sup- 
port. If  their  hopes  were  once  disappointed, 
it  was  necessary  only  to  interpret  the  Bibli- 
cal text  by  a  somewhat  different  combination 
of  letters  and  syllables,  in  order  to  make  it 
apply  to  a  new  hope,  deferred  to  a  later  time, 
and  the  Jewish  spark  was  kept  ablaze   in 


202  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

their  hearts.  The  excitement  itself,  though 
it  brought  no  permanent  rehef,  served  as  a 
temporary  remedy  for  their  wounded  spirits. 
Even  the  impostors,  if  impostors  they  were, 
contributed  their  share  toward  the  survival 
of  the  Jewish  hope  in  the  hearts  of  the  suf- 
fering Jews.  The  sacrifices  the  Jewish 
nation  made  on  the  altar  of  the  Kabbalah, 
in  submitting  to  the  delusive  dreams  pub- 
lished abroad  by  deluded  and  deluding  men, 
were  worth  the  recompense  the  nation  re- 
ceived in  the  preservation  of  the  great  and 
glorious  hope  of  a  triumphant  future. 


CHAPTER  VI 

The  Effects  of  Kabbalistic 
Speculations 

The  Protestant  Reformation — Luther's  Favorable 
Attitude  to  the  Jews — Hebrew  Literature  studied 
by  Christians — The  Wars  of  the  Reformation — 
Signs  of  the  Messianic  Era — Manasseh  ben 
Israel — The  Fifth  Monarchy  Men — The  Puritans 
— Manasseh  effects  the  Resettlement  of  the 
Jews  in  England — Aaron  Levi  identifies  the 
American  Indians  with  the  Ten  Tribes — 
Manasseh  believes  the  Messianic  Era  Near  at 
Hand — Manasseh  and  Cromv/ell — Sabbatai  Zebi 
announces  himself  as  the  Messiah — Pronounces 
the  Ineffable  Name  of  God — Excommunicated 
and  banished  from  Smyrna — In  Jerusalem — 
Nathan  Ghazati  his  Prophet — Recognized  as  the 
Messiah — The  Messianic  Theory  of  the  Sab- 
batians — Opposition  to  Rabbinism — Sabbatai 
turns  Mohammedan — Excitement  not  abated  by 
his  Death — Michael  Cardoso — Mordecai  of 
Eisenstadt — Jacob  Querido — Judah  Hasid — 
Hayyim  Malach — Nehemiah  Hiyya  Hayyun — 
Rabbis  oppose  the  pseudo-Messiahs — Moses 
Hayyim  Luzzatto  misled  by  Mystic  Speculations 
— Yankiev  Leibowitz  Frank — His  Theory  about 
the  Various  Messiahs — Frankists  declare  their 
Principles — Their  Opposition  to  the  Talmud- 
Modern  Hasidism — Resume  of  the  Influence  of 
the  Kabbalah. 

Like  almost  every  other  matter  of  human 
interest  in  Europe,  the  Messianic  hope  was 
greatly  influenced  by  the  Protestant  Refor- 


204  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

mation.  From  the  time  Martin  Luther 
boldly  launched  his  invectives  against  the 
Roman  Church  (1521),  and  succeeded  in 
throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  Pope,  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  was 
strengthened  among  the  Jews.  Luther  him- 
self, though  not  a  great  friend  of  the  Jews, 
declared  himself  most  emphatically  against 
Jewish  persecution. 

"  They  are  blood-relations  of  our  Lord,"  he  says  in 
one  place  (1523),^  "therefore,  if  it  were  proper  to 
boast  of  flesh  and  blood,  the  Jews  belong  to  Christ 
more  than  we.  I  beg,  therefore,  my  dear  Papists, 
if  you  become  tired  of  abusing  me  as  a  heretic,  that 
you  begin  to  revile  me  as  a  Jew." 

In  another  place  he  says : 

It  is  my  advice  that  we  treat  them  kindly.  ...  If 
we  would  help  them,  so  must  we  exercise,  not  the 
law  of  the  Pope,  but  that  of  Christian  love — show 
them  a  friendly  spirit,  permit  them  to  live  and  to 
work,  so  that  they  may  have  cause  to  live  with  us. 

Such  expressions  of  good  feeling  had  not 
come  from  Christian  lips  for  many  centuries, 
and  they  aroused  new  hopes  in  the  breast 
of  the  oppressed  Jews.    To  the  Jewish  mind. 


KABBAUSTIC  SPECULATIONS       205 

in  which  the  fall  of  Rome  was  always  con- 
nected with  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  the 
constant  wars  and  rebellions  against  papal 
authority  clearly  indicated  the  speedy  down- 
fall of  the  Eternal  City.  Moreover,  Jewish 
literature  had  become  a  fashionable  study 
with  learned  Christians.  Cardinals,  bishops, 
and  noble  princes  engaged  Jewish  teachers 
to  initiate  them  in  the  mysteries  of  the  Kab- 
balah and  other  departments  of  Jewish  lore. 
Chairs  of  Hebrew  were,  at  Reuchlin's  sug- 
gestion, established  in  many  German  uni- 
versities. French  university  students  pored 
over  Kimhi's  Hebrew  Grammar,  and  at- 
tempted to  converse  in  Hebrew.  The  print- 
ing-presses of  the  most  orthodox  Catholic 
universities  produced  not  only  Hebrew  books 
but  Latin  translations  of  the  works  of  Jew- 
ish scholars.  Were  not  these  signs  of  a 
more  blessed  period  for  the  Jews  ?  Can  we 
wonder  that  the  Jews,  immersed  in  the  study 
of  the  fanciful  Kabbalah,  allowed  themselves 
to  be  carried  away  by  such  indications  of  a 
glorious  future? 


2o6  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
brought  with  it  many  more  proofs  of  the 
near  approach  of  the  Messianic  era.  The 
many  calamitous  and  shameful  wars  between 
the  Catholics  and  the  Protestants  of  Europe, 
which  seemed  to  be  the  realization  of  the 
troublous  times  predicted  as  presages  of  the 
Messianic  era,  culminated  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  (1618-1648).  At  first  a  strug- 
gle between  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  it  gradually  involved  all 
the  powers  of  Europe,  and  created  chaos  and 
confusion  in  all  lands.  Although  the  Jews 
were  not  visited  with  any  special  persecution 
during  this  bloody  period,  and,  as  it  seems, 
even  received  more  protection  than  some  of 
the  Christians,  still  many  Jewish  communi- 
ties were  destroyed,  and  all  were  materially 
affected  by  the  general  confusion  reigning  in 
Europe. 

At  this  auspicious  period  of  confusion  and 
bewilderment,  when  the  whole  world  was 
awaiting   an    inevitable    change,    two    men 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS        20J 

arose  in  Israel,  one  in  Christian  Holland, 
the  other  in  Mohammedan  Turkey,  who 
were  to  exert  a  marked  influence  on  their 
contemporaries.  Both  were  followers  of  the 
fanciful  teachings  of  the  Kabbalah,  and  both 
proclaimed  new  Messianic  doctrines.  But 
while  the  name  of  Manasseh  ben  Israel  will 
ever  be  revered,  not  only  by  the  Jews  of 
England,  but  of  all  lands,  that  of  Sabbatai 
Zebi  casts  a  dark  shadow  over  the  pages  of 
Jewish  history,  and  will  ever  be  regarded 
with  abhorrence  as  the  name  of  one  of  the 
world's  greatest  impostors. 

Manasseh  ben  Israel  (1604-1657),''  al- 
though a  man  of  European  culture,  did  not 
escape  the  fascination  of  the  mystic  lore  of 
the  Kabbalah.  In  the  midst  of  a  busy  life 
devoted  to  the  service  of  his  people,  he  found 
time  for  speculation  on  transcendental  mat- 
ters and  the  Messianic  kingdom.  The  hope 
for  the  near  advent  of  the  Messiah  was  then 
entertained,  not  only  by  Jews,  who  never 
lost  it,  but  also  by  many  Christians.     A  new 


2o8  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Christian  sect  known  as  Fifth  Monarchy 
Men  supported  Cromwell's  government,  in 
the  belief  that  it  was  a  preparation  for  the 
Fifth  Monarchy,  i.  e,  the  monarchy  which  is 
to  succeed  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Roman,  when  Jesus  with  his 
saints  shall  reign  on  earth  for  a  thousand 
years.  These  Puritan  visionaries  eagerly 
welcomed  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  for  it  was  a 
feature  of  their  creed  that  the  Jews  would 
first  regain  the  Holy  Land,  the  Ten  Tribes 
would  be  found,  and  the  Jewish  Messiah,  a 
sprout  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  would  appear  in 
accordance  with  the  predictions  of  the  Bible. 
With  Jesus  he  would  decide  which  Messiah 
should  reign  over  the  world. 

Manasseh,  himself  a  mystic  and  a  Kabba- 
list,  was  charmed  with  these  predictions,  es- 
pecially as  the  year  1648  is  mentioned  in  one 
part  of  the  Zohar '  as  the  date  of  the  Mes- 
siah's appearance.  Letters  and  pamphlets, 
most  of  which  were  written  by  learned  and 
influential  Christians,  dealing  with  the  near 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS        209 

restoration  of  the  Jews  to  the  land  of  their 
fathers,  came  pouring  in  upon  Manasseh 
from  all  lands.  One  of  the  Huguenots  wrote 
a  book,  Rap  pel  dcs  Juifs  ("  The  Return  of 
the  Jews"),  in  which  he  called  upon  the 
king  of  France,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Church, 
to  restore  Israel,  the  eldest  son  of  God,  to 
his  ancient  inheritance.  In  England,  the 
Puritans  became  the  greatest  friends  of  the 
Jews,  and  one  of  their  preachers,  Nathaniel 
Holmes,  in  a  letter  to  Manasseh  ben  Israel, 
expressed  his  desire  to  serve  Israel  on  bended 
knees.  The  revolt  of  the  Puritans  against 
the  teachings  of  the  Church  Fathers  threw 
them  back  on  the  Jewish  Bible,  and  thus  ce- 
mented the  friendship  between  them  and  the 
Jews.  It  aroused  their  sympathy  for  the 
downtrodden  race,  which  had  given  the 
w^orld  the  Book  they  had  just  begun  to  learn 
and  appreciate. 

Manasseh  followed  all  these  changes  of 
sentiment  with  tense  excitement,  and  threw 
himself  with  much  fervor  into  the  enthusi- 


2IO  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

astic  activities  of  the  new  sects.  As  the  be- 
lief was  that  the  Messiah  would  not  come 
before  the  measure  of  Israel's  punishment 
was  full,  and  as  this  punishment  consisted  in 
the  Jews  being  scattered  all  over  the  world, 
he  directed  his  attention  toward  obtaining 
the  necessary  permission  for  the  settlement 
of  the  Jews  in  England,  where  they  had  not 
been  permitted  to  live.  Furthermore,  he  en- 
deavored to  ascertain  the  whereabouts  of  the 
Ten  Tribes.  Thus  the  Messianic  hope  was 
directly  responsible  for  so  important  an 
event  as  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Eng- 
land. 

A  Marrano  adventurer,  Antonio  de  Mon- 
tezinos,  or,  as  he  later  called  himself,  Aaron 
Levi,  who  had  travelled  in  America,  brought 
the  glad  tidings  to  Amsterdam,  that  he  had 
discovered  some  Jewish  tribes  among  the 
American  Indians.  The  fact  was  corrobo- 
rated by  the  records  of  many  other  travellers 
and  by  the  writings  of  many  historians  and 
geographers.     Manasseh  was  so  convinced 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS        211 

of  the  truthfulness  of  his  testimony  that  he 
wrote  a  book  entitled  Mikweh  Israel  ("  The 
Hope  of  Israel  "),  in  which  he  pointed  out 
all  indications  of  the  approach  of  the  Mes- 
sianic age.  In  this  book,  Manasseh  retained 
the  figure  of  the  Messiah  son  of  Joseph  or 
Ephraim,  who  would  gather  the  remnants  of 
the  Ten  Tribes  from  America,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  and  lead  them  to  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
over  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  which 
would  have  become  dry  land.  Thence  they 
would  proceed  to  Palestine,  at  the  blast  of 
the  trumpet.  This  Messiah,  killed  in  battle 
with  Gog  and  Magog,  after  the  resurrection 
is  made  viceroy  to  Messiah  son  of  David. 

Profiting  by  the  example  of  the  many  mis- 
taken calculations  of  the  date  of  the  Mes- 
siah's coming,  Manasseh  ben  Israel  prefer- 
red to  consider  the  determination  of  the  date 
impossible.  It  was  concealed  by  God,  and 
really  superfluous,  since  the  Messianic  era 
will  be  heralded  by  unmistakable  signs.* 
This  view  of  the  meanins^  of  the  unrest  in 


212  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

the  world  was  held  by  many  Christians, 
notably  by  a  Bohemian  physician,  Paul  Fel- 
genhauer,  who  composed  a  book  (1654)  en- 
titled ^'  Good  Tidings  for  Israel,"  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  "  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  the  Jewish 
philosopher  and  theologian."  He  tries  to 
prove  the  near  approach  of  the  Messianic 
age  from  Biblical  texts,  and  from  such  phe- 
nomena as  the  comet  of  1652,  the  fierce  wars 
in  Poland,  and  the  great  rebellion  in  Eng- 
land. 

Manasseh  himself  wrote  another  book,  set- 
ting forth  the  Jewish  Messianic  belief,  in 
order  to  make  his  position  clear  to  the 
Christian  world,  especially  to  those  who 
clamored  for  the  Fifth  Monarchy,  when 
Jesus  should  become  king  of  the  world.  He 
argued  that  the  Fifth  Kingdom  which,  as 
predicted  in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  would  soon 
succeed  the  other  four — the  Babylonian, 
Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman, — was  none 
other  than  the  kingdom  of  Israel  under  the 
rule  of  the  Messiah,  who  would,  however, 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       213 

accord  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  great 
consideration  and  kindness.  This  book 
( "  The  Precious  Stone,  or  the  Image  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  ")"  was  received  with  much 
eclat  by  both  Jews  and  Christians,  and  the 
famous  Dutch  painter  Rembrandt  supplied  it 
with  four  etchings.  Even  in  his  letter  to 
the  English  Parliament,  Manasseh  did  not 
hesitate  to  argue,  that  the  re-admission  of 
the  Jews  into  England  would  hasten  the 
Messianic  era.**  Cromwell  probably  expect- 
ed a  reconciliation  between  the  adherents  of 
the  New  Testament  and  those  of  the  Old, 
through  a  commingling  of  Puritans  and 
Jews,  and  the  adoption  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  by  the  latter.  At 
any  rate,  the  Jews  were  permitted  to  settle 
in  England.  Needless  to  say,  the  hopes  of 
the  Kabbalistic  Rabbi  and  the  Puritan  Pro- 
tector remained  unfulfilled/ 

While  these  changes  of  sentiment  were 
going  on  in  Europe,  the  attention  of  the 
Jews  of  Smyrna  was  attracted  to  a  youtli, 


214  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Sabbatai  Zebi,"  of  noble  appearance  and 
pleasing  voice,  living  in  seclusion  and  ascetic 
in  his  habits,  in  accordance  with  the  teach- 
ings of  his  mistress,  the  Kabbalah.  While 
still  in  his  father's  house,  he  taught  the 
Zohar  with  the  interpretations  of  Lurya  and 
Vital  to  a  circle  of  disciples.  His  ascetic 
life,  and  his  mysterious  practices,  such  as 
bathing  in  the  sea  at  night,  fasting  and  pray- 
ing in  solitude,  surrounded  him  with  a  halo 
in  the  eyes  of  his  admirers.  His  father 
worshipped  him,  attributing  his  own  success 
in  business  to  his  son's  piety. 

The  admiration  accorded  him  completely 
turned  his  head,  already  filled  with  the  fan- 
ciful teachings  of  the  Kabbalah  and  the 
Messianic  speculations  of  the  mystic  writers. 
In  his  twenty-second  year  (1648),  the  year 
prognosticated  in  the  Zohar  as  the  time  of 
the  appearance  of  the  Messiah,  the  year  of 
the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  when  the  bloody 
Thirty  Years'  War  came  to  an  end,  Sabbatai 
Zebi  revealed  himself  to  his  young  admirers 


K ABB ALI STIC  SPECULATIONS       215 

as  the  redeemer  of  Israel,  by  pronouncing 
the  Ineffable  Name  of  God."  Peculiar  sig- 
nificance was  attached  by  the  Kabbalists  to 
this  act,  which  is  strictly  forbidden  by  the 
Talmud'"  and  later  Jewish  authorities." 
Tradition  relates,  that  in  the  Temple  the 
Name  of  God  was  pronounced  only  on  cer- 
tain occasions,"  and  after  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple  it  was  never  to  be  pronounced  as 
written,  but  read  either  so  as  to  mean  "  my 
Lord,"  "  or  "  The  Name."  "  According  to 
a  current  interpretation,  God  Himself  went 
into  exile  at  the  dispersion  of  Israel,  and  His 
perfection  was  thus  to  a  certain  extent  im- 
paired. The  letters  of  His  Name  were  sepa- 
rated, and  could  be  reunited  only  by  the 
restoration  of  Israel  to  Palestine  and  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  Divine  plan  through  the 
Messiah.  Accordingly,  when  Sabbatai  Zebi 
permitted  himself  to  pronounce  the  Ineffable 
Name,  he  thereby  proclaimed  that  the  time 
of  Israel's  redemption  had  arrived." 

Such  boldness  on  the  part  of  the  mystic 


2l6  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

youth  did  not  pass  unnoticed  by  the  Rabbinic 
College  of  Smyrna.  Sabbatai  and  his  fol- 
lowers were  excommunicated,  and  subse- 
quently (about  1 651)  banished  from  Smyr- 
na, by  the  Beth-Din,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  his  own  teacher,  Joseph  Escapa.  As  is 
usually  the  case,  persecution  merely  helped 
to  strengthen  his  own  belief  in  his  mission, 
and,  by  surrounding  him  with  the  halo  of 
martyrdom,  spread  his  reputation,  and  in- 
creased his  influence.  Had  not  the  Messi- 
anic apocalypses  repeatedly  declared  that  the 
Messiah  must  undergo  hardship  and  priva- 
tion, must  submit  to  the  cruelties  of  men  and 
the  persecution  of  unbelievers  ? 

After  some  years  of  aimless  wandering, 
Sabbatai  arrived  in  Salonica,  the  hot-bed  of 
the  Kabbalah.  There  he  continued  his  Mes- 
sianic operations.  He  invited  all  his  follow- 
ers and  admirers  to  a  feast,  took  a  scroll  of 
the  law,  and  celebrated  his  wedding  with 
the  Torah,  intimating  that  he,  the  Messiah, 
the  son  of  God,  thus  married  the  Torah,  the 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       2iy 

daughter  of  God.  This  farcical  scene  out- 
raged the  sensibihties  of  the  more  sober 
Rabbis  of  Salonica.  As  a  result,  he  was 
banished  from  that  town  also. 

As  the  year  1666  was  drawing  near,  the 
second  milestone  in  the  Messianic  era,  when 
great  things  were  hoped  for  by  Jews  and  by 
Christians,  Sabbatai,  supported  by  the  cred- 
ulity of  many  rich  and  influential  Jews  all 
over  the  world,  took  up  his  abode  in  Jerusa- 
lem, where  he  awaited  the  miracle  that  would 
confirm  his  Messiahship.  The  people  of 
Jerusalem  were  greatly  excited  over  a  story, 
made  current  by  one  Baruch  Gad,  about  the 
Sons  of  Moses,  living  on  the  other  side  of 
the  marvellous  river  Sambatlon,  who  were 
awaiting  the  beginning  of  the  Messianic 
period  at  any  moment.  In  Jerusalem  Sab- 
batai met  his  Elijah  in  the  person  of  Nathan 
Ghazati,  who  undertook  to  proclaim  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messiah. 

When  Sabbatai  returned  to  his  native 
town,   Smyrna    (1665),  his  fame  preceded 


2l8  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

him  through  the  proclamations  made  by  the 
numerous  emissaries  '^  sent  out  over  all  of 
Europe  and  Asia  to  proclaim  his  Messiah- 
ship.  The  ban  of  excommunication,  pro- 
nounced upon  him  seventeen  years  before, 
was  entirely  forgotten.  On  New  Year's 
day,  in  the  synagogue,  amidst  the  blowing  of 
horns,  he  publicly  declared  himself  the  Mes- 
siah, while  the  multitude  cried,  "  Long  live 
our  king,  our  Messiah !  "  The  craze  spread 
to  all  Jewish  communities.  Women  and 
children  in  the  streets  prophesied  about  the 
Messianic  advent  in  the  language  of  the 
Zohar.  Men  from  all  lands  came  to  see  the 
long-expected  Messiah  of  the  Jews.  The 
Jewish  world  was  in  a  state  of  delirious  ex- 
citement. Business  was  neglected,  all  world- 
ly interests  abandoned,  and  Sabbatai's  erst- 
while opponents  underwent  severe  penance 
as  atonement  for  their  sins.  Christians  also 
were  affected  by  the  general  confusion,  and 
clear-headed  merchants,  practical  business 
men  from  all  the  centres  of  Europe  fever- 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       219 

ishly  expected  news  from  Smyrna.  The 
printing  houses  of  Amsterdam  could  not 
supply  sufficient  copies  of  the  new  prayer- 
books,  which  were  adorned  with  the  like- 
nesses of  Sabbatai  and  King  David.  The 
Hamburg  Jewish  community  went  wild  over 
the  news.  In  London,  in  true  English  fash- 
ion, Jews  offered  wagers  at  the  odds  of  ten 
to  one  that  Sabbatai  would  be  crowned  and 
anointed  king  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  course  of  two  years.  Never  before  had 
the  whole  of  Jewry  been  thrown  into  such  a 
state  of  excitement. 

According  to  the  Messianic  theory  of  the 
Sabbatians,"  the  elements  (Nizozoth)  of  the 
original  soul  are  scattered  all  over  the  atmos- 
phere, and  they  cannot  be  reunited,  because 
the  Kelippoth,  the  evil  spirits,  constantly  pre- 
vent their  reunion.  When  the  Kelippoth 
are  destroyed  by  a  truly  righteous  man 
versed  in  Kabbalistic  lore,  who  knows  the 
relations  between  the  upper  and  the  lower 
worlds,   then   the   '01am   ha-Tikkun,    "  the 


220  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

world  of  order,"  will  prevail,  miraculously 
influenced  by  the  Sefiroth.  The  Messiah, 
possessing  sparks  of  the  original  soul,  or, 
according  to  some,  being  Adam  Kadmon 
(the  first,  original  man)  himself,  the  handi- 
work of  God,  a  part  of  the  Deity,  is  best  able 
to  wrest  the  scattered  soul  elements  from  the 
clutches  of  the  evil  spirits. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  and  the  in- 
auguration of  *'  the  world  of  order,"  the  laws 
of  Judaism  will  lose  all  significance.  Still 
less  will  the  Talmud,  an  object  of  scorn  with 
most  of  the  pseudo-Messiahs,"  continue  to 
have  authority.  The  Messiah  himself  is  a 
Divine  personage,  sprung  from  the  bosom  of 
the  "  Ancient  of  days  "  ('Attik  Yomin).  He 
is  the  holy  king  (Malka  Kaddisha),  the  ori- 
ginal man  (Adam  Kadmon),  the  true  God, 
the  God  of  Israel,  and  to  him  alone  should 
prayers  be  addressed.  Until  then,  the  angel 
Metatron  had  held  dominion  over  mundane 
affairs.  Now  God  in  the  flesh,  in  the  form 
of  Sabbatai,  would  assume  the  rule  of  the 


KABDALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       221 

world.  Under  the  dominion  of  the  angel, 
the  world  was  badly  managed.  God  could 
not  realize  all  His  ideals  with  regard  to  this 
world.  But  now  God  appeared  in  the  form 
of  man,  became  incarnate  in  Sabbatai,"  and 
a  new  order  of  things  would  set  in. 

These  and  many  similar  blasphemies  were 
preached  by  Sabbatai's  followers.  Isaac 
Primo,  the  private  secretary  of  the  Messiah, 
often  signed  official  messages  with  "  I,  the 
Lord  your  God,  Sabbatai  Zebi."  A  char- 
acteristic circular  issued  by  this  secretary  to 
all  Jewish  communities,  commanding  them 
to  change  the  fast  of  the  tenth  day  of  Te- 
beth  into  a  day  of  rejoicing,  begins  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  first-begotten  son  of  God,  Sabbatai  Zebi,  Mes- 
siah and  redeemer  of  the  people  of  Israel,  to  all 
the  children  of  Israel,  peace !  Since  ye  have  been 
deemed  worthy  to  behold  the  great  day  and  the  ful- 
filment of  God's  word  by  the  prophets,  your  lament 
and  sorrow  must  be  changed  into  joy,  and  your 
fasting  into  merriment,  for  ye  shall  weep  no  more 
....  because  I  have  appeared.^" 

Another  principle  of  the  Kabbalists,  which 
is  found  also  in  the  Talmud,  was  then  re- 


222  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

vived  and  put  into  practice.  There  was  a 
belief  that  the  Messiah  would  not  appear  be- 
fore the  entire  supply  (Guf )  of  unborn  souls 
is  exhausted.''^  Hence,  to  accelerate  God's 
work,  the  Jews  of  Salonica  married  off  their 
children  at  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve,  seven 
hundred  couples  at  one  time,  so  as  to  re- 
move all  obstacles  from  the  way  of  the  Mes- 
siah."" 

The  chief  feature  of  the  Sabbatian  move- 
ment, however,  was  its  opposition  to  Rab- 
binical Judaism.""  It  is  a  tendency  common 
to  almost  all  the  pseudo-Messiahs,  but  Sab- 
batai  and  his  followers  carried  it  further 
than  any  of  their  predecessors.  With  the 
abolition  of  Rabbinic  law,  they  also  attempt- 
ed to  abrogate  the  written  law,  holding  that 
a  new  covenant  had  been  revealed  to  the 
Messiah.  When  some  of  the  Rabbis  of  Am- 
sterdam tried  to  oppose  the  new  enactments 
of  Sabbatai  that  had  the  avowed  purpose  of 
abolishing  ancient  laws  and  institutions,  they 
were  almost  stoned  by  the  enraged  populace. 


KAB  BALI  STIC  SPECULATIONS        223 

It  is  related,  that  when  Sabbatai  Zebi  offered 
the  paschal  lamb  in  Constantinople,  he  had 
his  disciples  eat  of  the  forbidden  fat  and  pro- 
nounce the  blessing,  "  Blessed  art  Thou  .  .  . 
who  looseneth  the  bound,"  meaning  thereby 
the  loosening  of  the  bonds  of  traditional 
Judaism.  It  is  a  marvellous  phenomenon, 
this  tremendous  influence  exerted  over  a 
whole  nation  by  one  man — an  influence  so 
great  that  the  few  sober-minded  Jews,  most- 
ly Talmudic  scholars,  who  were  known  as 
Koferim  (unbelievers),  had  to  conceal  their 
resentment  for  fear  of  incurring  the  fury  of 
the  mob. 

Although,  under  pressure,  Sabbatai  Zebi 
turned  Mohammedan  in  1666,  changed  his 
name  to  Mehmed  Effendi,  married  a  Turk- 
ish woman,  and  induced  many  of  his  follow- 
ers to  embrace  Mohammedanism,  he  was  still 
regarded  as  the  Messiah  by  many  Jews.  To 
account  for  his  conversion,  some  of  his  ad- 
herents asserted  that  only  a  phantom  had 
turned  Mohammedan;  Sabbatai  himself  had 


224  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

returned  to  heaven,  or  had  gone  in  search 
of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  would  soon  re-appear. 
Nathan  Ghazati,  the  dekided  prophet, 
preached,  that,  Hke  Moses  in  the  court  of 
Pharaoh,  it  was  necessary  for  the  Messiah 
to  live  in  the  court  of  the  Sultan,  so  that  he 
might  redeem  the  lost  souls  of  the  Moham- 
medans as  well.  Sabbatai  himself  still  kept 
up  his  Messianic  character,  associated  with 
Jews,  under  the  pretext  that  he  would  con- 
vert them  to  the  religion  of  Islam,  expound- 
ed the  Zohar,  and  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  sect  of  Judeo-Turks,  who,  without  hesi- 
tation, assumed  the  turban,  followed  Mo- 
hammedan practices,  and  revelled  in  the  hope 
of  Sabbatai's  speedy  return  as  the  true  re- 
deemer of  Israel. 

Sabbatai  died,  wretched,  lonely,  and  for- 
saken, in  a  small  town  in  Albania  (1676). 
Yet  the  belief  in  his  Messiahship  was  un- 
shaken. New  impostors  arose  in  different 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  who  tried  to  keep 
up  the  delusion,  and  the  people,  to  escape  the 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       225 

great  pain  of  a  sudden  disillusion  after  so 
much  enthusiasm  and  excitement,  were  will- 
ing to  be  deluded.  The  Rabbis,  naturally, 
were  the  first  to  regain  their  senses  and 
begin  an  active  crusade  against  the  Sabba- 
tians,  although  it  took  a  long  time  before 
the  baneful  impression  was  entirely  removed. 
It  is  one  of  the  miracles  of  Jewish  history 
that  Judaism  survived  the  terrible  shock 
given  it  by  the  collapse  of  the  Sabbatian 
movement. 

Sabbatai  Zebi's  immediate  successor  was 
Michael  Cardoso  (1630-1706),  a  converted 
Marrano,  a  man  of  European  culture  and 
refinement,  who  announced  himself  as  the 
Ephraimite  Messiah.  He  preached,  and 
wrote  numerous  treatises,  on  the  doctrine 
that  there  are  two  gods — one  the  First 
Cause,  incomprehensible,  without  will  and 
without  influence  over  this  world ;  the  other, 
the  God  of  Israel,  the  Creator  of  the  world, 
the  lawgiver,  who  alone  should  be  wor- 
shipped.     He   gained   many   adherents   in 


226  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Turkey,  Egypt,  and  Candia,  and  secured  the 
good  offices  of  some  of  the  ruHng  powers  of 
the  East.  His  enterprises  came  to  a  sud- 
den end ;  he  was  stabbed  by  his  own  nephew, 
Shalom. 

Another  impostor,  Mordecai  of  Eisen- 
stadt,  at  the  same  time  spread  the  Sabbatian 
doctrines  throughout  Germany  and  Poland. 
He  represented  himself  as  Sabbatai  Zebi 
risen  from  the  dead,  the  true  Messiah  son  of 
David.  Sabbatai  could  not  accomplish  the 
work  of  redemption,  because  he  was  rich, 
and  the  Messiah  is  described  as  "  poor  and 
riding  on  an  ass."  Hence,  he,  Mordecai, 
the  poor  man,  was  the  true  Messiah. 

In  Turkey  the  Sabbatian  movement  was 
afforded  new  strength  by  the  appearance  of 
Jacob  Querido  ("the  favorite"),  repre- 
sented as  the  son  of  Sabbatai,  but  in  reality 
his  brother-in-law,  who  was  supposed  to  pos- 
sess the  souls  of  both  Messiahs,  that  of  the 
son  of  Joseph  and  that  of  the  son  of  David. 
He  assumed  the  name  of  Zebi,  and  preached 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       227 

and  practiced  the  grossest  immorality,  be- 
lieving that  the  sinfulness  of  the  world  could 
be  overcome  only  by  a  superabundance  of 
sin.  When  Querido  and  his  followers  were 
denounced  to  the  Turkish  authorities,  four 
hundred  of  them  turned  Mohammedans,  and 
formed  a  sect  known  by  the  name  of  Don- 
mah  (''apostates").  It  is  said  that  this 
sect  numbers  now  more  than  four  thousand 
members.  After  Ouerido's  death,  the  leader- 
ship was  undertaken  by  his  son  Berachyahu 
(about  1 695- 1 740). 

In  Poland,  where  the  Jews  had  but  re- 
cently suffered  terrible  persecutions  during 
the  Cossack  invasions,  the  Sabbatian  craze 
assumed  most  alarming  proportions.  Under 
the  leadership  of  Judah  Hasid,  of  Dubno, 
and  of  Hayyim  Malach,  a  new  league  was 
formed,  the  adherents  of  which  called  them- 
selves Hasidim,  and  spent  their  days  in  fast- 
ing and  self-mortification.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1700,  about  fifteen  hundred  of 
these  Hasidim  set  out  on  a  journey  to  Pales- 


228  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

tine,  to  await  there  the  approaching  redemp- 
tion. Hayyim  Malach  presided  over  the 
Sabbatian  sect  in  Jerusalem,  taught  the  trini- 
tarian  doctrine  as  developed  by  the  later  fol- 
lowers of  the  false  Messiah,  and  carried 
about  with  him  a  carved  image  of  Sabbatai 
Zebi,  which  his  followers  worshipped. 

The  arch-impostor  in  these  years  of  con- 
fusion was  Nehemiah  Hiyya  Hayyun 
(1650- 1 726),  who  stirred  up  trouble  wher- 
ever he  appeared,  and  brought  discord  and 
schism  into  many  Jewish  communities,  from 
Amsterdam  to  Jerusalem,  from  London  to 
Italy,  in  Germany  and  in  Poland.  He 
preached  and  wrote  books  about  the  triune 
god,  the  god  in  three  persons  (Parzufim)  — 
the  holy  primeval  god,  the  holy  king,  the  in- 
carnation of  the  Deity,  and  the  female  per- 
son, the  Shechinah.  He  found  adherents  in 
the  Portuguese  Hacham  of  London,  later  of 
Amsterdam,  Solomon  Ayllon  (1667-1728), 
in  the  Polish  wonder-working  Rabbi,  Lobele 
Prossnitz,  and,  according  to  some,  also  in 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       229 

the  famous  Prague  Talmudist,  Jonathan 
Eibeschiitz.  The  controversies  about  Hay- 
yun  between  the  German  and  Portuguese 
congregations  of  Amsterdam,  the  blasphe- 
mies and  immorahties  of  his  adherents,  the 
bans  and  excommunications  hurled  on  both 
sides,  and  the  great  conflict  between  Jacob 
Emden  and  Jonathan  Eibeschiitz,  in  which 
almost  all  the  Rabbis  and  the  representatives 
of  the  Jewish  communities  of  Poland  and 
Germany  were  involved  as  a  result  of  these 
Sabbatian  movements,  are  all  matters  of 
history,  and  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  here. 

The  dangers  connected  with  Kabbalistic 
study  and  investigation  then  became  clear 
to  the  Rabbis.  With  strong  determination 
and  with  all  the  powers  at  their  command, 
they  set  about  weakening  the  influence  of  the 
Kabbalah  and  restricting  its  study,  though 
not  because  they  disbelieved  in  its  doctrines. 
Many  of  the  most  representative  Rabbis  of 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
were  firm  believers  in  the  sanctity  of  the 


230  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Zohar  and  in  the  infallibility  of  its  teach- 
ings. But  in  spite  of  their  devotion  to  the 
mystical  teachings  of  the  Kabbalah,  they 
could  not  but  realize  the  grave  peril  to  Juda- 
ism from  the  impostors  and  deluded  fanatics 
who  took  refuge  within  the  stronghold  of  the 
Zohar. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  a  gifted  youth  of 
noble  birth,  a  genius  in  Hebrew  poetry,  and 
a  master  in  Jewish  lore,  became  entangled 
in  the  meshes  of  the  Kabbalah,  prostituted 
his  admirable  qualities  by  speculating  on 
mystical  dreams,  and  subsequently,  to  the 
detriment  of  Judaism  and  Jewish  literature, 
became  a  prey  to  these  frenzies.  Moses 
Hayyim  Luzzatto  (1707- 1747),  born  of 
wealthy  parents  in  Padua,  accomplished  in 
Hebrew  and  Latin,  a  poet  of  rare  ability, 
applied  himself  early  in  life  to  the  study  of 
the  Kabbalah.  He  was  so  enchanted  with 
the  teachings  of  the  Zohar  that  he  composed 
a  book  in  the  same  style  and  in  the  same  dia- 
lect, by  which  he  hoped  to  redeem  the  souls 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       231 

of  Israel  and  of  the  whole  world.  The 
Messianic  frenzy  suddenly  took  possession  of 
him.  He  imagined  that  Elijah  the  prophet 
had  told  him  he  was  the  Messiah,  "  the  sup- 
port of  the  Deity  in  exile,  the  precious  throne 
of  God,  and  when  the  Deity  went  forth  from 
exile,  he  would  be  the  one  to  lead  it  forth." 
He  composed  a  psalter  in  the  same  form  and 
style  as  the  psalter  of  David,  and  he  was  be- 
lieved to  have  said  that,  in  the  Messianic 
age,  his  psalter  would  take  the  place  of  the 
Psalms  of  David.  He  was  suspected  of 
having  had  connections  with  the  Sabbatians, 
and  anathemas  were  hurled  at  him  from  the 
court-houses  of  various  Rabbis,  until, 
broken-hearted  and  forsaken,  he  fell  a  vic- 
tim in  his  fortieth  year  to  the  plague  that 
raged  in  Palestine,  where  he  was  then  re- 
siding. He  was  one  of  the  most  precious 
victims  which  Judaism  was  called  upon  to 
sacrifice  on  the  altar  of  the  Kabbalah. 

The  last  of  the  pseudo-Messiahs  in  Jewish 
history  was  Yankiev  Leibowitz  Frank,  of 


232  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Galicia,  an  unscrupulous  adventurer,  a  scoun- 
drel of  the  first  order,  who  brought  much 
misery  to  the  Jews  of  Poland.  Frank  was 
a  Mohammedan  in  Turkey,  a  Catholic  in 
Poland,  and  an  observant  Jew  among  his 
adherents.  He  taught  the  peculiar  doctrine, 
very  much  like  that  expounded  by  Moham- 
med about  the  prophets,  that  all  the  Messiahs 
that  had  arisen  from  time  to  time  in  Israel 
had  been  true  Messiahs.  All  had  been  pos- 
sessed of  the  Messianic  soul,  which  had  as- 
sumed different  personalities.  David,  Eli- 
jah, Jesus,  Mohammed,  Sabbatai  Zebi,  and 
his  successors — all  of  them  had  possessed 
the  soul  of  the  Messiah,  which  now  took  his, 
Frank's,  form.  Foremost  in  his  teachings 
was  the  Sabbatian  theory  about  the  trinity, 
with  an  embellishment  of  his  own,  that  the 
deity  incarnate  in  the  Messiah  possessed  all 
powers  in  heaven  and  earth,  and  ordered  his 
followers  to  address  him  as  "  the  Holy 
Lord."  The  Talmud  was  an  object  of  such 
intense   hatred    amons:   the   Frankists    that 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       233 

they  boasted  of  the  additional  name  they 
assumed — anti-Tahnudists,  or  Zoharists. 

In  the  declaration  of  principles  which  the 
Frankists  presented  to  Bishop  Dembowski 
(1757),  when  they  asked  him  to  call  for  a 
disputation  with  the  Rabbinites,  they  laid 
down  their  belief  in  the  following  para- 
graphs '.^  ( I )  It  is  the  duty  of  every  Israel- 
ite, not  only  to  love  and  worship  God,  but 
also  to  investigate  His  true  essence.  (2). 
It  is  the  object  of  the  Torah  and  of  the  pro- 
phets to  present  a  clear  view  of  the  true  es- 
sence of  God,  but  the  language  employed  in 
these  books  is  so  obscure  and  mysterious 
that  only  those  possessed  of  deep  insight  and 
endowed  with  Divine  gifts  can  discern  it. 
(3)  The  Talmud  pretends  to  be  an  interpre- 
tation of  the  Bible,  but  it  is  full  of  lies,  base- 
ness, and  opposition  to  the  Torah  itself.  It 
enjoins  its  adherents,  not  only  to  deceive 
Christians,  but  also  to  destroy  them.  They 
(the  Frankists),  however,  follow  another 
interpretation  of  the  Bible,  that  given  by  the 


234  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Zohar,  where  the  mysteries  of  the  Divine 
word  are  correctly  set  forth.  (4)  The 
Frankists  beHeve  in  one  God,  Creator  of  the 
world,  who  takes  cognizance  of  the  small  as 
well  as  the  great  things  in  this  world,  but 
(5)  they  also  believe  that  this  God  consists 
of  three  persons  (Parzufim),  and  this  be- 
lief can  easily  be  proved  from  Holy  Writ, 
and  is  distinctly  stated  in  the  Zoharr"  (6) 
They  also  believe  that  God  has  appeared  in 
human  flesh,  eaten,  drunk,  slept,  and  satis- 
fied all  human  wants,  but  without  commit- 
ting any  sin.  (7)  They  believe  that  Jerusa- 
lem will  never  be  rebuilt.  (8)  The  Messiah 
will  appear,  not  to  bring  about  the  redemp- 
tion of  Israel,  but  in  the  flesh,  to  redeem  lost 
souls.  (9)  God  Himself  will  revoke  the 
curse  pronounced  upon  the  progenitors  of  the 
human  race  and  on  the  whole  nation,  and 
then  the  true  Messiah  shall  be  God  who  is  in 
heaven. 

Four  years  later,  when  the  Frankists  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  Canon  Mikulski,  promis- 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS        235 

ing  to  enter  the  Catholic  Church  on  condition 
that  before  their  conversion  they  should  be 
permitted  to  hold  a  disputation  with  the 
Talmudists,  they  again  emphasized  their  be- 
lief in  the  trinity,  and  made  the  dogmas  of 
their  faith  approach  still  more  closely  to  the 
dogmas  of  the  Catholic  Church.  They  de- 
clared that  the  words  of  all  the  prophets  re- 
garding the  advent  of  the  Messiah  had  been 
long  since  fulfilled,  that  the  Messiah  was  the 
true  God,  who  became  incarnate  and  suf- 
fered for  the  redemption  of  the  world,  that 
with  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  all  sacrifices, 
the  whole  ritual,  in  fact  the  whole  of  Juda- 
ism lost  its  significance,  that  the  cross  is  the 
sign  of  the  trinity  and  the  emblem  of  the 
Messiah  whom  all  must  obey,  and  whose 
kingdom  could  be  entered  only  through  bap- 
tism. The  Talmud  teaches  the  Jews  to  use 
Christian  blood,  for  which  naturally  all  the 
adherents  of  the  Talmud  crave.'"  The  dis- 
putation took  place  in  Lemberg  (July  16, 
1759),  and  the  Rabbinites  were  declared  de- 


236  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

feated  by  the  ignorant  clergy,  who  did  not 
understand  a  word  of  what  the  Rabbis  had 
to  say  in  their  defence  and  in  defence  of 
their  religion.  Besides  renouncing  all  the 
laws  of  Judaism,  the  Frankists  also  abolished 
all  the  laws  of  chastity.  They  carried  on 
their  pernicious  practices  in  many  towns  of 
Podolia.  As  a  result,  thousands  of  them 
were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  in  their 
hatred  of  the  Jews  they  brought  many  mis- 
fortunes to  the  Polish  Jewish  communities. 
This  climax  of  superstition  and  wickedness 
was  reached  at  the  same  time  that  Moses 
Mendelssohn  was  bringing  more  light  into 
the  tents  of  Jacob,  and  Jewish  emancipation 
was  dawning  in  some  of  the  countries  of 
Europe. 

Before  we  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  the 
new  epoch  of  reason  and  enlightenment, 
ushered  in  by  Mendelssohn  and  his  follow- 
ers, we  must  bestow  a  parting  glance  on  the 
last  phases  of  mysticism,  in  a  new  form,  free 
from  the  baneful  and  pernicious  effects  of 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       237 

the  machinations  of  the  extremists  in  the 
domain  of  the  Kabbalah,  inculcating  higher 
ideals  and  nobler  strivings,  and  yet,  in  its^ 
degenerate  form,  fraught  with  many  dangers 
to  Judaism.  Israel  Baal-Shem  (1698?- 
1759)  and  Beer  of  Miesricz  ( I700?-I772), 
prompted  by  aversion  to  the  methods  adopt- 
ed by  the  Jewish  students  of  the  Talmud, 
founded  a  new  sect.  For  a  time  it  threat- 
ened to  become  a  fierce  opponent  of  accepted 
Judaism,  and  to  the  present  day  it  is  strong 
in  numbers  and  influence  among  the  East 
European  Jews.  The  modern  Hasidim,  firm 
believers  in  the  sanctity  of  the  Zohar,  in  the 
powers  of  the  Kabbalah,  and  in  the  influence 
exerted  by  their  Zaddikim  (wonder-working 
Rabbis)  over  the  destinies  of  men,  busy 
themselves  very  little  with  Messianic  specu- 
lations. The  aim  of  the  founders  of  this 
sect  was  to  free  the  Jews  from  the  shackles 
of  excessive  intellectualism,  introduce  more 
poetry,  more  sentiment  into  the  Jewish  wor- 
ship, take  away  the  Jewish  youth  from  use- 


238  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

less,  pilpulistic  casuistry,  and  inspire  him 
with  a  desire  to  pray,  to  cultivate  his  reli- 
gious emotions.  It  is  said  that  when  Baal- 
Shem  "  overheard  the  sounds  of  eager,  loud 
discussions  issuing  from  a  Rabbinical  Col- 
lege, closing  his  ears  with  his  hands,  [he] 
declared  that  it  was  such  disputants  who 
delayed  the  redemption  of  Israel  from  cap- 
tivity." ^  The  Hasidim,  however,  entertain 
the  commonly  accepted  views  about  the  Mes- 
siah and  the  Messianic  kingdom.  While  they 
attribute  supernatural  powers  to  their  Zad- 
dikim,  they  never  permit  them  to  claim  a 
Messianic  mission,  and  together  with  other 
Jews  they  pray  for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 
and  the  redemption  of  Israel.  It  seems  as  if 
the  disastrous  results  of  the  appearance  of 
the  many  false  Messiahs  during  the  eigh- 
teenth century  had  this  beneficial  effect,  that 
even  the  mystery-loving  Hasidim  gave  up 
all  speculations  about  the  nature  and  mission 
of  the  Messiah  and  the  date  of  his  arrival. 
A  dark  and  gloomy  aspect  seventeenth  and 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS       239 

eighteenth  century  Judaism  presents  to  us. 
As  the  darkness  of  night  becomes  most  in- 
tense before  day-break,  when  it  is  making  Its 
last  stand  against  the  advance  of  the  king  of 
day,  so  it  was  with  Judaism  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  sun  of  enHghtenment  and 
civiHzation  which  illumined  the  tents  of 
Jacob.  Superstition  played  havoc  with  the 
fancies  of  the  people,  blind  credulity  in  the 
assertions  of  any  impostor  wrought  misery 
for  the  scattered  sons  of  Judah,  the  reins 
of  fancy  were  let  loose,  and  the  people  sank 
to  the  lowest  depths  of  fanaticism  and  super- 
stition. There  were  thinkers,  poets,  and 
philosophers  who  contributed  much  to  the 
development  of  the  Jewish  law  and  ideals, 
who  enriched  Jewish  literature  with  their 
writings  and  the  Jewish  spirit  with  high  and 
exalted  aspirations.  But  many  even  of  these 
could  not  resist  the  spell  of  the  Kabbalah, 
and  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  led  to 
strange  acts  and  abnormal  strivings  by  the 
fanciful  manifestations  of  this  mystic  lore. 


240  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

It  admittedly  gave  an  impetus  to  many  spir- 
itualizing forces  in  Jewry,  some  of  which  are 
discernible  to  the  present  day,  but  it  also 
made  possible  the  rise  of  the  many  impostors 
and  deluded  enthusiasts  who  led  the  people 
astray  by  arousing  false  hopes  and  inculcat- 
ing strange,  un-Jewish  doctrines. 

The  rise  of  the  Hasidim  and  the  bitter 
warfare  waged  against  them  by  Elijah  of 
Wilna  and  his  associates — a  warfare  origin- 
ally not  because  of  the  prominence  given 
to  mystic  lore  in  the  system  introduced  by 
Israel  Baal-Shem,  for  the  greatest  enemies 
of  the  Hasidim  themselves  were  devoted  vo- 
taries of  the  Kabbalah — helped  to  make  the 
Kabbalah  and  its  Bible,  the  Zoliar,  less  de- 
sired objects  of  study  and  investigation  to 
the  bulk  of  the  Jews.  The  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  close  of  the  Jewish  medie- 
val ages,  witnessed  a  sudden  revolt  in  the 
Jewish  camp,  stimulated  by  the  great  changes 
then  occurring  in  Europe,  as  well  as  by  the 
pernicious  results  of  the  Sabbatian  move- 


KABBALISTIC  SPECULATIONS        241 

ments.  Other  influences  arose,  other  forces 
began  their  operations  upon  the  Jewish 
mind,  which,  in  the  course  of  time,  changed 
the  aspect  of  Judaism,  changed  the  Jew's 
aspect  of  the  world,  and  helped  to  change 
the  world's  attitude  toward  the  Jew.  The 
Messiah  idea  now  throws  off  the  crust  of 
myth  and  superstition,  and  assumes  either  a 
national  aspect,  as  with  the  Zionists,  or  a 
cosmopolitan  universal  aspect,  as  with  the 
modern  Reformers,  although  the  belief  in  a 
personal  Messiah  is  still  a  doctrine  of  faith 
with  the  majority  of  Jews. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Religious  Reform  and  Zionism 

The  Emancipation  of  the  Jews— The  Desire  for 
Emancipation  causes  Apostasy — Reform  of  the 
Worship — The  Rabbis  opposed  to  Innovations — 
The  Messianic  Hope  and  the  Desire  for  Equal 
Rights — Messianic  Prayers  in  the  Early  Reform 
Prayer-Books — Holdheim  and  Geiger  establish 
the  Reform  Movement  on  a  Scientific  Basis — 
Disbelieve  in  Jewish  Nationality — Hirsch  the 
Advocate  of  Orthodoxy — Spiritualizes  the  Mes- 
sianic Hope — Bernays'  Position — Zunz's  View — 
Second  Edition  of  the  Hamburg  Prayer-Book — 
Frankel  justifies  the  Desire  of  the  Jews  for 
Political  Independence — Salomon  fears  Sus- 
picion of  Disloyalty  to  the  State — Geiger's 
Radical  View — Frankel's  Second  Article  justly 
criticised — Gabriel  Riesser — Rabbinical  _  Con- 
ferences— Einhorn's  Theory  of  the  Dispersion  of 
Israel — Geiger  and  Frankel  on  the  Retention  of 
Hebrew  in  the  Prayer-Book — Jewish  Emanci- 
pation strengthens  the  Messianic  Hope  among 
Eastern  Jews — Modern  Zionism — Kalischer's 
View  of  the  Messianic  Ideal— Other  Rabbis 
protest  against  hastening  the  Period  of  Redemp- 
tion— The  Movement  gains  Support — First  Col- 
ony established  in  Palestine — National  Sentiment 
intensified  in  Europe — Gives  Rise  to  National 
Excliisiveness — Modern  Anti-Semitism  the  Re- 
sult— Persecution  of  the  Jews  in^  Russia— Zion- 
ism gains  many  Adherents — Rabbis  reconcile  the 
National  Re-awakening  with  the  Messianic  Hope 
— Ahad  Ha-*Am's  Philosophic  Theory  of  Jewish 
Nationalism — Belief  in  a  Personal  Messiah  still 
entertained  by  the  Majority  of  Jews— Zionism  a 
Step  toward  the  Greater  Ideal  of  the  Messianic 
Era. 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  243 

Mendelssohn's  translation  of  the  Bible,  the 
spread  of  the  cosmopolitan  ideals  of  the 
French  Encyclopedists,  and  the  grant  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty  to  the  Jews  by  the 
French  people,  were  the  impelling  causes  of 
the  action  of  the  German  Jews  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  self- 
consciousness  aroused  by  the  civilizing  ef- 
forts of  the  Mendelssohnian  school  created 
a  craving  for  emancipation,  which  was 
strengthened  and  encouraged  by  the  gener- 
ous attitude  of  France  and  of  Holland  to- 
ward the  Jews.  We  can  hardly  appreciate 
the  tremendous  influence  exerted  upon  the 
Jews  of  Germany  by  the  Jewish  Synod  as- 
sembled by  Napoleon,  although  it  is  true 
that  in  comparison  with  what  was  expected 
of  it,  the  Synod  accomplished  very  little. 
The  mere  fact,  however,  that  the  great  Na- 
poleon, the  ruler  of  the  civilized  world,  con- 
cerned himself  with  the  Jewish  question, 
was  sufficient  to  intoxicate  the  crushed  and 
degraded  Jews  with  joy,  and  fill  their  hearts 


244  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

with  extravagant  hopes  for  the  future. 
Christian  poets,  philosophers,  and  even 
churchmen  began  to  advocate  the  cause  of 
the  Jew.  Dramas,  philosophical  treatises, 
and  occasional  pamphlets,  written  by  repre- 
sentative men,  pleaded  for  the  emancipation 
of  the  long-suffering  people.  Monarchs  and 
princes  began  to  realize  their  duty  to  the 
ancient  people.  The  Jews  became  the  topic 
of  conversation  in  the  salon,  the  diet,  the 
royal  assembly,  and  little  by  little  they  were 
granted  rights  and  privileges  they  had  not 
enjoyed  for  many  centuries. 

All  these  facts,  pointing  to  a  speedy  liber- 
ation, stirred  the  downtrodden  people  with 
feelings  of  gratitude  to  their  Christian  neigh- 
bors. Forgetting  the  old  dictum  of  the 
Rabbis,^  that  one  should  not  destroy  an  old 
synagogue  before  the  new  one  is  completed, 
the  Jews  of  Berlin  enthusiastically  set  about 
preparing  themselves  for  the  new  position 
by  repudiating  everything  that  might  ham- 
per intimate  relations  with  their  neighbors 


I 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  245 

and  benefactors.  Conversions  to  Christian- 
ity became  every-day  occurrences.  The  re- 
ligious sensibilities  of  loyal  Jews  were  con- 
stantly outraged  by  the  action  of  the  enlight- 
ened and  cultured  frequenters  of  the  Berlin 
salons.  Many  Jewish  youths  and  maidens, 
fascinated  by  the  novel  experience  of  a  close 
union  with  the  great,  unknown,  Christian 
world,  were  swept  away  by  the  tide,  and 
subsequently  entirely  lost  to  Judaism.  The 
more  thoughtful  and  circumspect  applied 
themselves  to  the  improvement  of  conditions 
within  the  Jewish  camp.  They  endeavored 
to  make  the  Jewish  religious  service  accepta- 
ble to  their  own  children  and  tolerable  to  the 
Christian  visitor.  The  Rabbis  and  their  fol- 
lowers, unwilling  to  give  up  an  iota  of  the 
accepted  rites  and  ceremonies  of  their  faith, 
saw  the  danger  to  Judaism,  but  did  not  ap- 
preciate the  strength  of  the  proposed  reme- 
dies. Hence  a  conflict  ensued  within  the 
Jewish  fold,  and  it  has  continued  to  rage  to 
the  present  day,  bringing  both  blessing  and 
misery  to  Judaism. 


246  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

It  is  natural,  at  such  a  period,  when  the 
struggle  for  emancipation  was  at  its  height, 
when  the  Jews  were  willing  to  sacrifice  much 
for  the  privilege  of  citizenship,  that  the 
Messianic  hope  with  its  ideals,  so  distinct 
from  present-day  actualities,  should  find  but 
few  exponents.  The  contradiction  between 
the  desire  for  equal  rights  and  the  expecta- 
tion of  independence  in  the  land  of  their 
fathers,  seemed  so  obvious,  that  it  is  related, 
when  the  Government  of  Posen  asked  the 
Rabbis  of  the  Province,  whether  they  wished 
the  privilege  of  citizenship,  they  replied, 
they  had  no  desire  for  equal  rights,  since  they 
would  remain  in  exile  only  until  the  Messiah 
came  to  redeem  them.  Rabbi  Akiba  Eger  is 
said  to  have  replied :  "  We  are  blessed  in 
this,  that  we  can  never  be  utterly  destroyed, 
but  we  are  also  cursed,  in  that  none  of  our 
human  well-wishers  can  render  us  permanent 
help."''  On  the  other  hand,  David  Fried- 
lander,  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1812, 
urged  the  abolition  of  all  prayers  with  a 
Messianic  tendency. 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  2^y 

"  I  stand  here  before  God,"  he  cries  out  in 
one  place ;  "  I  invoke  blessings  and  prosperity 
upon  my  king,  my  compatriots,  myself,  and 
my  family ;  I  pray  not  for  a  return  to  Jerusa- 
lem, for  the  restoration  of  the  Temple  and 
its  sacrificial  cult,  I  entertain  no  such  desire 
in  my  heart,  their  fulfilment  will  not  make 
me  happy,  my  mouth  shall  not  utter  them."  ' 

In  the  same  pamphlet,  Friedlander  urges 
the  removal  of  the  Hebrew  language  from 
the  prayer-book,  arguing  that  so  long  as  the 
Jews  were  regarded  as  aliens,  they  naturally 
looked  to  Palestine  as  their  land  and  to  the 
Hebrew  language  as  their  national  tongue, 
but  now  the  Jews  should  love  the  land  that 
grants  them  citizenship,  and  should  worship 
in  its  language.* 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  Messianic  hope 
was  regarded  by  both  factions  as  a  serious 
impediment  to  the  acquisition  of  equal  rights. 
Those  unwilling  to  part  with  this  hope  were 
ready  to  forfeit  their  citizenship,  and  those 
who  desired  emancipation  at  any  cost  un- 


248  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

hesitatingly  gave  up  the  cherished  ideal  of 
the  Jewish  people.  Even  the  Government 
authorities  took  this  view  of  the  Jewish  Mes- 
sianic hope.  Hardenberg,  the  Prussian 
Chancellor,  in  presenting  Friedlander's  pam- 
phlet to  King  Frederick  William  III,  wrote 
a  long  memorandum  in  its  favor. 

"  It  is  not  surprising,"  says  the  Chancellor,  "  that 
the  Jews  long  for  a  restoration  to  Palestine,  since  they 
are  so  much  oppressed  by  the  peoples  among  whom 
they  live.  But  when  equal  rights  have  been  granted 
to  them,  they  will  no  longer  pray  for  their  re- 
nationalization  in  Palestine,  but  rather  for  the  peace 
and  prosperity  of  the  Prussian  government ;  they  will 
give  up  the  hope  of  the  coming  of  a  Messiah,  and 
will  pray  for  the  welfare  of  the  king  whom  they  love 
and  respect  with  all  their  souls."  ° 

In  spite  of  these  assertions,  based  appar- 
ently on  sound  logical  reasoning,  the  pio- 
neers of  reform  in  Judaism  dared  not  remove 
the  prayers  for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 
from  the  prayer-book.  The  first  reform 
worship,  established  by  Jacobsohn,  in  his 
own  house,  with  organ  and  German  sermon 
(1815),  contained  all  the  Messianic  elements 
of  the  old  prayer-book.     Even  in  the  new 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  249 

prayer-book  published  by  the  reform  com- 
munity of  Berlin  there  was  no  change  in  the 
prayers  that  had  a  Messianic  significance.' 
In  the  first  prayer-book  used  in  the  Reform 
Temple  of  Hamburg  (18 18),  which  was 
prepared  by  M.  J.  Bresslau  and  Sackel 
Frankel,  and  was  intended  as  a  compromise 
between  orthodox  and  reform  views,  only 
such  prayers  were  omitted  as  pointed  directly 
to  the  fact  that  the  Jews  regarded  themselves 
as  foreigners  in  the  land.  All  references  to 
Israel's  ancient  national  glory  were  retained, 
and  also  all  Messianic  passages  that  can  be 
interpreted  symbolically.  But  the  new  edi- 
tion of  this  prayer-book,  published  in  1841, 
although  in  many  respects  more  conservative 
than  its  predecessor,  omitted  all  references  to 
Zion  and  Jerusalem,  to  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  or  to  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 
This  is  not  surprising,  for  at  that  time 
the  reform  movement,  which  had  been  mere- 
ly a  means  of  self-defence,  assumed  a  more 
permanent  form  in  the  hands  of  Holdheim 


250  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

and  Geiger.  They  established  It  on  the  basis 
of  Jewish  science.  These  bold  and  outspoken 
men,  unlike  the  first  reformers,  whose  timid- 
ity prevented  them  from  making  any  radical 
change  in  ritual  or  ceremony,  went  so  far  as 
to  assert  that  Judaism  was  wholly  religious, 
and  had  nothing  national  in  it.  In  his 
younger  years,  Geiger  was  so  confident  of 
the  truth  of  his  theory,  mistakenly  attri- 
buted to  Mendelssohn,  that  in  a  letter  to  his 
friend  UUman  (September  20,  1839),'  he 
sueeested  the  formation  of  distinct  commu- 
nities  of  Jews  who  had  given  up  their  adher- 
ence to  the  Talmud  and  their  belief  in  its 
authority. 

The  exponents  of  reform  shifted  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  from  the  esthetic  and  the  con- 
venient to  the  scientific  basis,  and  thus  at- 
tracted many  adherents  to  their  doctrines 
and  teachings.  Orthodoxy,  however,  also 
found  its  advocates  among  the  modern  and 
cultured  Jews  of  Germany,  armed  with  the 
same    weapons    of    rational    investigation. 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  251 

Samson  Raphael  Hirsch  (1808- 1888),  the 
strongest  champion  of  orthodox  Judaism  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  in  his  "  Nineteen 
Letters  of  Ben  Uzziel  "  ^  (1836),  discussed 
the  two  burning  questions  of  the  day — 
emancipation  and  reHgious  reform — from  a 
standpoint  entirely  new  In  those  days.  In 
the  sixteenth  letter,  Hirsch  explains  his  po- 
sition with  regard  to  emancipation  and  its 
relation  to  the  national  status  of  the  Jews. 
He  suggests  a  compromise  between  these 
two  apparently  conflicting  ideas,  arguing 
that  the  Jews  never  had  been  a  nation  in  the 
political  sense  of  the  word.  Since  it  is  not 
the  land  that  united  Israel,  but  the  Torah, 
"  therefore,  it  still  forms  a  united  body, 
though  separated  from  a  national  soil;  nor 
does  this  unity  lose  its  reality,  though  Israel 
accept  everywhere  the  citizenship  of  the  na- 
tions amongst  which  it  is  dispersed."  When 
God  shall  unite  His  scattered  people,  such  an 
union  will  have  only  the  spiritual  significance 
of  showing  the  whole  world  the  greatness  of 


252  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

God  and  the  glory  of  the  Torah,  as  a  guiding 
principle  of  State. 

"The  entire  purpose  of  the  Messianic  age  is  that 
we  may,  in  prosperity,  exhibit  to  mankind  a  better 
example  of  *  Israel'  than  did  our  ancestors  of  the 
first  time,  while,  hand  in  hand  with  us,  the  entire  race 
will  be  joined  in  universal  brotherhood  through  the 
recognition  of  God,  the  All-One. 

"  On  account  of  this  purely  spiritual  nature  of  the 
national  character  of  Israel,  it  is  capable  of  the  most 
intimate  union  with  States,  with,  perhaps,  this  dif- 
ference, that  while  others  seek  in  the  State  only  the 
material  benefits  which  it  secures,  considering  posses- 
sion and  enjoyment  as  the  highest  good,  Israel  can 
regard  it  only  as  a  means  of  fulfilling  the  mission  of 
humanity."  * 

This  exposition  of  the  idea  at  the  root  of 
the  great  controversy  raging  in  German 
Jewry,  found  few  adherents  at  that  period, 
although  to-day  it  is  accepted  by  both  ortho- 
dox and  reform  Jews,  each  party  interpre- 
ting it  in  its  own  way. 

The  argument  of  Isaac  Bernays,  the  Chief 
Rabbi  of  Hamburg,  was  more  practical.  In 
his  letter  of  condemnation  of  the  new  prayer- 
book,'"  he  held  that  the  reformers,  by  remov- 
ing the  hope  of  a  future  national  existence, 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  253 

which  is  one  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Judaism,  endanger  the  very  existence  of 
Jews  and  Judaism.  More  forcible  still,  al- 
though less  satisfactory,  is  Zunz's  argument 
expressed  in  his  opinion  on  the  question  of 
circumcision,"  in  which  he  takes  it  for  grant- 
ed that  Israel  forms  merely  a  church.  "  The 
Jewish  Church  "  is  one  of  his  favorite  ex- 
pressions, but  the  belief  in  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  he  considers  essential  to  member- 
ship in  it. 

The  controversy  on  the  question  of  the 
Messiah  reached  its  climax  with  the  publica- 
tion of  the  second  edition  of  the  Hamburg 
prayer-book  (1841).  Zacharias  Frankel 
(180 1- 1 875),  always  an  advocate  of  con- 
servatism, published  a  long  article  in  the 
Orient,^''  sharply  criticising  the  prayer-book. 
He  expressed  little  sympathy  with  Bernays, 
who  had  interdicted  the  prayer-book,  and 
had  condemned  all  those  who  used  it  in 
worship.  Yet  Frankel  disapproved  the  ac- 
tion of  the  compilers,  who  had  summarily 


254  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

removed  all  mention  of  a  Messiah  and  of  the 
hope  for  a  return  to  Jerusalem.  Frankel  be- 
lieved that  the  desire  of  the  Jews  for  freedom 
and  political  independence  in  their  own  land 
was  a  holy  sentiment,  with  which  all  enlight- 
ened nations  would  sympathize.  The  ex- 
perience of  many  centuries  had  proved  that  a 
people  without  a  land  and  without  political 
independence  is  held  in  derision  by  the  rest 
of  the  world.  Recent  events  (referring  to 
the  Greek  revolution  of  1828)  also  proved 
that  it  was  possible  for  a  people,  after  many 
years  of  subjection,  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  a  tyrant  and  become  free.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  Israel  should  have  full  confidence 
in  its  own  powers  and  in  the  promises  held 
out  to  it,  for  if  it  lost  this  hope,  it  would 
entirely  disappear. 

Frankel  maintained  that  the  doctrines  of 
the  modern  Rabbis  about  a  Jewish  mission 
and  Israel's  election  as  a  nation  of  priests 
bearing  the  flag  of  a  universal  religion,  al- 
though exalted  and  inspiring,  were  too  ab- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  255 

stract  to  afford  real  strength  and  encourage- 
ment to  the  people  in  times  of  trouble  and 
persecution.  He  could  not  understand  how 
the  people  would  fulfil  even  that  mission,  if 
the  reform  Rabbis  continued  to  abolish  the 
laws  and  ceremonies  of  Judaism,  wiping  out 
the  marks  of  history,  and  turning  the  hearts 
of  the  Jews  away  from  their  national  hopes 
and  aspirations.  Despair  of  a  national  re- 
vival would  inevitably  bring  about  national 
death  for  the  Jews,  and  with  their  death 
their  mission  also  would  die.  Therefore,  he 
emphatically  insisted  upon  faith  in  that  ex- 
alted and  glorious  ideal,  the  belief  in  the 
future  of  the  Jewish  nation  living  in  politi- 
cal independence  and  freedom  in  the  land  of 
its  ancestors." 

In  this  article,  Frankel  showed  himself  to 
be  a  firm  nationalist,  and  a  believer  in  the 
Messianic  hope.  Nevertheless,  he  by  no 
means  held  settled  and  well-established  views 
on  the  subject.  His  policy  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  Judaism,  the  policy  of  the  *'  golden 


256  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

mean,"  frequently  induced  him  to  modify 
his  views,  and  thus  gave  his  antagonists  an 
opportunity  to  charge  him  with  inconsist- 
ency. Numerous  articles  and  pamphlets " 
were  written  in  the  controversy  on  the  Ham- 
burg prayer-book.  Among  these  was  a  re- 
ply to  Frankel's  criticism  by  the  preacher  of 
the  Temple,  Dr.  Gotthold  Salomon  (1784- 
1862) ,  who  emphasized  the  fact  that  only  the 
references  to  the  re-introduction  of  the  sacri- 
ficial cult,  and  not  the  hope  for  a  future 
national  existence  for  Israel,  were  removed 
from  the  prayer-book.  At  the  same  time  he 
argued  against  the  retention  of  this  hope, 
too,  for  the  Jews  themselves  do  not  wish  to 
return  to  Palestine.  They  would  be  suspect- 
ed of  disloyalty  if  they  prayed  for  the  com- 
ing of  a  Messiah  and  the  restoration  of  their 
political  independence.  Therefore,  this  hope 
should  be  removed  from  the  hearts  of  the 
people,  and  the  prayers  should  retain  only  as 
much  of  it  as  referred  to  a  spiritual  regen- 
eration. 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  2S7 

Abraham  Geiger  (i8 10-1874),  on  the 
other  hand/'  thought  that  the  compilers  of 
the  prayer-book  had  not  gone  far  enough. 
They  ought  to  have  aboUshed  all  prayers 
with  any  national  significance.  They  had 
retained  too  many  of  the  Hebrew  prayers, 
he  thought,  and  had  evinced  cowardice  and 
unpardonable  timidity  in  dealing  with  ques- 
tions of  Jewish  dogma. 

Frankel,  in  his  reply  to  Salomon's  criti- 
cism,'" repeated  the  arguments  about  the  re- 
tention of  the  Jewish  national  hope,  but  at 
the  same  time  he  introduced  a  new  thought 
which  undermined  his  whole  theory.  He 
now  gave  utterance  to  the  idea  that  nation- 
ality was  forced  upon  the  Jews  from  with- 
out. They  were  compelled  to  shrink  into  a 
separate  nationality,  because  the  nations  had 
denied  them  the  rights  of  citizenship.  Many 
of  their  brethren  were  still  living  in  lands 
where  all  rights  were  denied  to  them,  there- 
fore, they  could  not  be  blamed  if  they  prayed 
for  a  return  to  Jerusalem,  no  more  than  the 


358  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


Greeks  who  lived  in  Austria  were  regarded 
as  traitors  to  the  royal  house  of  Habsburg 
because  they  offered  their  services  to  their 
struggling  brethren  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Turk.  When  the  Jews  prayed  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  and  for  the  return  to 
Palestine,  they  prayed  for  those  of  their  race 
who  had  no  fatherland,  who  were  rejected 
by  the  nations  among  whom  they  dwelt. 

This  contradictory  statement  was  rightly 
taken  advantage  of  by  S.  Holdheim  (1806- 
1860),"  who  maintained  that  if  there  was 
a  Jewish  nationality  we  could  not  disclaim 
it,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  could  not  be 
forced  upon  us  by  nations  who  violate  the 
laws  of  humanity.  If  Judaism  did  not  in- 
culcate a  Jewish  nationality,  the  Jews  who 
live  under  tyrannical  rulers  could  not  create 
it.  They  had  a  right  to  demand  equal  rights 
of  citizenship  only  if  they  submitted  to  the 
laws  of  the  land,  and  regarded  themselves 
as  citizens  of  the  land  in  which  they  lived. 

It  is  quite  obvious,  therefore,  that  even  in 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  259 

Frankel  the  national  consciousness  was  not 
very  strong.  His  desire  to  retain  all  Mes- 
sianic references  in  the  prayer-book  was  due 
rather  to  a  sentimental  feeling  for  the  an- 
tiquity of  these  prayers,  justifiable  in  itself, 
but  impotent  against  the  attacks  of  practical 
reason.  Gabriel  Riesser,  one  of  the  foremost 
members  of  the  Hamburg  Temple,  said,'* 
that  though  he  himself  no  longer  prayed  for 
a  return  to  Palestine,  he  could  see  no  harm 
to  the  cause  of  Jewish  emancipation  in  re- 
taining the  prayers  in  question.  At  present 
we  are  citizens  of  various  countries,  and  it 
is  our  duty  to  serve  them  with  all  our  pow- 
ers. When  the  great  trumpet  blows,  and  we 
are  gathered  to  our  ancient  inheritance,  and 
established  in  our  land,  under  a  Jewish  Grov- 
ernment,  we  shall  abandon  our  rights  of 
citizenship  elsewhere.  The  real  reason  for 
abolishing  the  prayers  for  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  he  said,  was  not  that  their  retention 
would  interfere  with  our  obtaining  full 
rights,  but  it  would  be  hypocrisy  for  German 


26o  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Jews,  who  had  long  since  given  up  the  Mes- 
sianic hope,  to  repeat  meaningless  prayers. 

The  controversy  continued  for  a  long  time 
in  the  periodicals.  Thence  it  v/as  transfer- 
red to  the  Rabbinical  Conferences,  both  in 
Germany  and  in  America.  It  will  be  pos- 
sible for  me  to  give  only  a  short  account  of 
these  assemblies  and  of  their  deliberations 
on  this  important  question. 

In  1843,  ^  reform  society  was  established 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main  with  the  avowed 
purpose  of  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  Rabbin- 
ism.  In  its  platform,  it  boldly  declared  that 
the  members  neither  expected  nor  desired 
the  coming  of  a  Messiah,  who  would  bring 
the  Israelites  back  to  Palestine,  and  they 
recognized  no  fatherland  except  the  one  to 
which  they  belonged  by  birth  or  civil  rela- 

19 

tions. 

At  the  first  Rabbinical  Conference,  held  in 
1844  at  Brunswick,  there  was  no  discussion 
on  the  Messiah  question.""  In  1845,  the  sec- 
ond   Rabbinical    Conference    was    held    at 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  261 

Frankfort-on-the-Main,  when  the  questions 
of  the  behef  in  the  coming  of  a  Messiah  and 
the  retention  of  the  prayers  expressive  of  the 
Messianic  hope  were  debated.  In  discussing 
the  report  of  a  committee  recommending  the 
view,  that  the  Messiah  idea  should  be  strip- 
ped of  all  notions  of  a  political  or  national 
character,  Einhorn  proclaimed  his  famous 
theory,  that  the  dispersion  among  the  nations 
was  not  a  punishment  for  Israel,  but  the 
greatest  good  that  could  have  been  conferred 
upon  it,  for  the  real  development  of  Judaism 
dates  from  the  removal  of  the  Jews  from 
Palestine.  He  maintained  that  the  hope  of 
a  future  redemption  is  closely  allied  with 
Talmudic  Judaism.  The  enlightened  Jew 
should  not  pray  for  the  restoration  of  the 
national  glory  and  the  re-introduction  of  the 
sacrificial  cult,  although,  in  his  prayers,  he 
may  call  the  Jews  "  the  chosen  people,"  for 
this  is  an  incontrovertible  fact.'"  Holdheim 
in  the  main  agreed  with  Einhorn.^  Other 
Rabbis  were  of  a  different  opinion,  and  many 
compromises  were  suggested. 


262  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

The  question  of  Jewish  nationality  was 
again  brought  up  in  the  discussion  on  the 
retention  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  the 
prayer-book.  Geiger  declared,  that  language 
being  only  a  national  and  not  a  religious 
bond,  Hebrew  had  no  place  in  a  modern 
Jewish  ritual.  Frankel  vehemently  attacked 
Geiger,  maintaining  that  the  love  the  Jew 
bore  the  Hebrew  had  nothing  to  do  with  his 
devotion  to  the  fatherland,  and  even  the  hope 
for  a  future  redemption  did  not  interfere 
with  his  patriotism.''  This  Conference 
marks  the  real  break  between  reform  and 
orthodoxy.  Despite  the  constant  warfare 
against  reform  and  reformers  conducted  by 
Frankel,  Sachs,  and  David  Cassel,  the  new 
ideas  took  firm  root  in  Germany.  Thence 
they  were  transported  to  America,  where 
they  were  received  with  great  favor. 

Other  conferences  held  at  various  places 
and  times  dealt  more  or  less  with  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Messiah,  but  little  that  was  new 
was  advanced  on  either  side.     The  Philadel- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  263 

phia  Conference,"  held  in  1869,  adopted  the 
following  statement  of  principles,  which  was 
practically  seconded  by  the  Pittsburg  Con- 
ference of  1885 : 

1.  The  Messianic  aim  of  Israel  is  not  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  Jewish  State  under  a  descendant  of 
David,  involving  a  second  separation  from  the  nations 
of  the  earth,  but  the  union  of  all  children  of  God  in 
the  confession  of  the  unity  of  God,  so  as  to  realize 
the  unity  of  all  rational  creatures  nnd  their  call  to 
moral  sanctification. 

2.  We  look  upon  the  destruction  of  the  Second 
Jewish  commonwealth  not  as  a  punishment  for  the 
sinfulness  of  Israel,  but  as  a  result  of  the  Divine 
purpose  revealed  to  Abraham,  which,  as  has  become 
ever  clearer  in  the  course  of  the  world's  history, 
consists  in  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  to  all  parts 
of  the  earth,  for  the  realization  of  their  high-priestly 
mission,  to  lead  the  nations  to  the  true  knowledge 
and  worship  of  God 

6.  The  belief  in  the  bodily  resurrection  has  no  re- 
ligious foundation,  and  the  doctrine  of  immortality 
refers  to  the  after-existence  of  the  soul  only.^ 

Thus,  although  emancipation  was  the 
prime  motive  for  the  abolition  of  the  belief 
in  a  personal  Messiah  by  the  pioneers  of 
reform,  when  some  of  the  workers  in  the 
field  of  "  Jewish  Science  "  joined  the  reform 
movement,  a  scientific  basis  was  constructed 


/ 


264  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

for  Judaism,  by  which  the  national  hope  of 
the  Jews  was  proved  to  be  untenable.  The 
emancipation  of  the  Jews  of  Germany,  fol- 
lowing the  revolution  of  1848,  helped  to 
strengthen  the  reform  movement,  and  there- 
by weaken  the  idea  of  Jewish  nationalism. 
Strange  as  it  may  appear,  this  very  eman- 
cipation, the  kind  treatment  accorded  the 
Jews  in  many  lands,  and  the  elevation  of 
Jews  to  high  positions  in  the  councils  of 
States  and  in  the  world  of  finance,  were  in- 
terpreted by  another  class  of  Jews  as  signs 
of  the  approach  of  the  Messianic  era.  The 
oppressed  Jews  of  Eastern  Europe  naturally 
longed  and  prayed  for  a  speedy  redemption. 
Legends  of  the  Messiah  and  the  wonders  and 
glories  of  his  coming  were  told  by  young 
and  old.  With  them  it  was  not  so  much  a 
desire  for  national  identity  and  political  sov- 
ereignty, as  for  a  complete  return  to  the  old 
State,  with  the  idealized  Messiah,  the  anoint- 
ed of  God,  in  the  foreground.  The  burdens 
of  exile  narrowed  their  horizon.    They  could 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  265 

see  no  other  way  of  redemption  from  their 
abject  position  than  by  supernatural  events. 
When  news  of  the  prominence  attained  by 
Jewish  magnates  and  statesmen  reached 
these  communities,  when  they  were  in- 
formed, frequently  in  an  exaggerated  form, 
of  the  favor  shown  to  some  of  their  breth- 
ren by  the  ruling  powers  of  Europe,  their 
vague  notions  of  a  Messiah  and  a  Messianic 
age  assumed  a  more  definite  shape.  The  idea 
of  emancipation  from  present  misery  by  a 
more  natural  course  imperceptibly  merged 
with  the  confused  hope  of  a  Messianic  period. 
The  Jewish  emancipation  in  Western  Euro- 
pean lands  aroused  within  the  hearts  of  the 
Jews  of  the  East  a  certain  amount  of  self- 
consciousness,  of  national  pride,  upon  the 
basis  of  which  later  builders  constructed  the 
great  national  movement  of  the  Jews — 
Zionism. 

When  a  history  of  modern  Zionism  comes 
to  be  written,  the  names  of  Hirsch  Kalischer 
and  Elijah  Guttmacher  will  stand  out  most 


266  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

prominently.     They  were  the  first  to  stir  up 
the  feehngs  of  the  Jews  for  the  Holy  Land, 
and  arouse  the  wealthy  to  support  practical 
colonization.     Although  their  efforts  were 
not  very  successful  among  the  Jews  of  Rus- 
sia, who  under  the  reign  of  Alexander  II 
were  too  well  situated  to  heed  such  a  call, 
they  succeeded  in  interesting  some  prominent 
Jews  and  Christians  in  their  plans.     When 
the  policy  of  the  Romanoffs  tov/ard  the  Jews 
changed,  the  soil  was  ready,  and  the  actual 
work  commenced.     Besides  the  difficulty  of 
overcoming  the  general  belief,  that  the  re- 
demption would  come  only  through  direct 
intervention  of  God,  there  was  the  obvious 
violation  of  the  law  against  hastening  the 
period  of  redemption,  by  the  settlement  of 
Jewish  colonies  in  Palestine. 

So  early  as  1836,  Hirsch  Kalischer,  then 
Rabbi  in  Thorn,  Germany,  explained  his  po- 
sition with  regard  to  the  Messiah,  in  a  letter 
addressed  to  Anselm  Mayer  Rothschild.'" 
If  one  subtracts  the  homiletic  and  the  pil- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  267 


pulistic  elements  of  his  letter,  the  arguments 
presented  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  held  by  many  Zionists  of  to-day. 

Let  no  one  imagine  that  the  Messiah  will  appear 
suddenly,  and,  amid  miracles  and  wonders,  lead  the 
Israelites  to  their  ancient  inheritance.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  redemption  will  be  in  a  natural  way,  by 
the  desire  of  the  Jews  to  settle  in  Palestine  and  the 
willingness  of  the  nations  to  help  them  in  this  work. 
After  many  Jews  have  settled  in  Palestine,  and 
Jerusalem  has  been  rebuilt,  the  Temple  re-established, 
and  the  "  sacrifices  are  for  a  sweet  savor  to  the 
Lord,"  then  will  God  show  them  all  the  miracles  in 
accordance  with  the  description  given  by  the  prophets 
and  sages.  First  a  man  will  appear  endowed  with 
great  natural  abilities,  who  will  bring  about,  in  a 
natural  way,  the  settlement  of  Palestine  by  the  Jews, 
then  God  will  send  His  prophet  and  His  anointed 
king. 

In  another  letter,  to  Albert  Cohn,""  the 
almoner  of  the  Paris  branch  of  the  Roth- 
schild family,  the  Rabbi  repeats  this  argu- 
ment, adding  that  the  Jewish  settlement  of 
Palestine  will  be  the  first  step  toward  the 
Messianic  era.  "  Now  is  the  time,"  he  cries 
out,  "  as  so  many  Jews  have  been  elevated 
to  high  positions,  and  are  able  to  exert  their 
influence  over  the  rulers  of  Europe."     This 


268  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

point,  however,  was  not  allowed  to  pass 
without  opposition.  Many  Rabbis  vigor- 
ously protested  against  such  an  undertaking, 
holding  it  to  be  in  direct  opposition  to  Jew- 
ish tradition  and  Jewish  law.  Still,  the 
more  modern  and  more  cultured  Rabbis  en- 
dorsed the  plan  as  outlined  by  Kalischer."^ 
The  theory  that  the  Messianic  era  must  be 
preceded  by  a  settlement  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine  on  the  basis  of  colonization,  gained 
ground  even  among  the  most  orthodox  Rab- 
bis. Ha-Maggid,  then  the  only  Hebrew 
weekly,  heartily  supported  the  movement, 
and  the  interest  taken  in  the  plan  by  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore  and  Lawrence  Oliphant, 
and  the  semi-official  support  afforded  by  the 
British  Government,  helped  to  make  many 
converts  to  the  new  idea.  As  a  result  of 
this  movement,  the  agricultural  school 
"  Mikweh  Israel  "  was  established  in  1870 
by  the  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle,  and  in 
1878  the  first  Jewish  colony,  Petah  Tikwah, 
was  established. 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  269 

Europe  was  gradually  discarding  the 
theories  that  had  been  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing about  the  French  Revolution.  Cosmo- 
politan ideals  were  rejected  as  opposed  to  the 
nature  of  man,  and  national  solidarity  be- 
came the  watchword  of  many  European  na- 
tions. In  1832,  Greece,  after  a  hard  strug- 
gle, wrested  her  independence  from  Turkey. 
Italy  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria  and  the 
Pope,  and  the  Italian  nation  was  unified  un- 
der Victor  Emanuel  in  1870.  Bismarck 
succeeded  in  uniting  the  various  German 
principalities  into  a  powerful  nation.  After 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  in  1878,  by  the 
treaty  of  Berlin,  Roumania,  Servia,  Monte- 
negro, and  Bulgaria  were  made  independent 
of  Turkish  rule.  Everywhere  national  feel- 
ing was  strengthened,  and  even  in  Poland 
and  Hungary  it  was  only  partially  subdued 
by  the  hand  of  tyrants. 

This  feeling,  however,  gave  rise  to  the 
more  sordid  sentiment  of  national  exclusive- 
ness,  and  the  monster  anti-Semitism  was  the 


270  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

result.  The  Jews  might  be  tolerated  if  the 
distinction  between  them  and  the  nations 
among  whom  they  lived  were  only  a  reli- 
gious one.  But  the  Jews  as  Semites,  racially 
different  from  the  Aryans,  could  never  amal- 
gamate with  them,  and  were,  therefore,  a 
menace  to  national  solidarity.  Of  course, 
the  Governments  themselves  could  not  offi- 
cially recognize  such  a  distinction,  but  the 
middle  classes,  who,  since  the  revolution  of 
1848,  have  become  potent  factors  in  directing 
the  policies  of  Governments  in  all  constitu- 
tional States,  espoused  the  anti-Semitic 
cause,  especially  after  the  Jews  showed 
themselves  powerful  competitors  in  the  fields 
of  culture  and  progress.  Thus,  though  the 
letter  of  the  law  accorded  the  Jews  equal 
rights  with  their  fellow-citizens  of  other 
creeds,  anti-Semitic  agitation  prevented  the 
practical  application  of  the  laws.  The  Jews, 
who  at  first  were  willing  to  assimilate  with 
their  neighbors  at  the  cost  of  denying  their 
nationality,  began  to  realize  that  their  sacri- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  271 

fices  were  in  vain,  for  assimilation  implied 
the  consent,  not  only  of  those  desirous  of 
assimilating,  but  also  of  those  with  whom 
they  wished  to  assimilate.** 

In  Russia,  too,  with  the  reaction  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  II,  the  Government  and 
the  people  set  about  a  systematic  persecution 
of  the  Jews.  Alexander  Ill's  accession  to 
the  throne  was  followed  by  bloody  riots 
against  the  Jews  of  the  Southern  provinces, 
where  the  desire  for  emancipation  had  al- 
ready made  inroads  into  the  religious  beliefs 
of  the  people.  The  May  Laws  of  1882 
helped  to  crush  all  lingering  hopes  that 
might  have  been  entertained  for  Jewish 
emancipation  in  Russia.  Disillusioned  in 
their  fond  dreams,  driven  back  by  those 
whose  friendship  and  protection  they  were 
seeking,  despised  by  those  whom  they  en- 
deavored to  imitate,  the  Jewish  youths  of 
Russia  came  back  to  the  fold,  and  joined 
hands  with  their  fathers  for  a  regeneration 
of  a  national  Judaism  on  Jewish  soil.     It 


2/2  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

was  not  the  economic  conditions  that  created 
the  sentiment,  for  the  same  young  men  who 
went  to  Palestine  to  work  as  day-laborers  in 
Jewish  colonies,  refused  the  help  offered 
them  by  the  philanthropic  organizations  of 
Europe.  It  was  wounded  feelings,  broken 
hearts,  shattered  ideals,  that  gave  birth  to 
the  wonderful  phenomenon,  the  Zionist 
movement,  which  is  the  latest  phase  of  the 
Messianic  idea  in  Jewish  history. 

Almost  all  the  Jewish  colonies  now  flour- 
ishing in  Palestine  were  established  in  the 
course  of  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890. 
The  qualified  success  of  these  colonies  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  ideal  was  not  given  suffi- 
cient time  for  development.  Action  pre- 
ceded deliberation,  and  sentiment  is  usually 
a  poor  guide  in  practical  matters.  The  young 
men  who  tore  themselves  away  with  disgust 
from  the  European  culture  of  the  Russian 
gymnasiums  and  universities,  and  establish- 
ed the  colony  Gederah,  could  not  have  been 
expected   to   formulate   very   definite  ideas 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  273 

about  the  relation  of  their  action  to  the  Mes- 
sianic hope  of  the  Jews.  The  pressure  from 
without  made  them  realize  the  hopelessness 
of  their  position  among  the  nations,  and 
they  fell  back  on  seclusion,  even  complete 
isolation,  as  the  only  remedy  for  Israel. 
Were  they  cowards  ?  Only  those  who  do  not 
know  the  sufferings  and  privations  under- 
gone by  these  young  colonists,  most  of  whom 
were  not  trained  for  the  life  of  the  pioneer 
farmer,  will  accuse  them  of  cowardice. 

The  Rabbis  were  confronted  with  the 
problem  of  reconciling  this  sudden  re-awak- 
ing of  Jewish  national  feeling  with  the  Mes- 
sianic hope.  The  more  conservative  among 
them  vehemently  opposed  the  new  move- 
ment, believing  it  to  be  in  opposition  to  Jew- 
ish tradition,  especially  as  they  saw  that  the 
most  enthusiastic  of  the  new  Zionists  were 
Jews  who  had  for  a  long  time  been  estranged 
from  Judaism  and  Jewish  observances. 
They  feared  that  the  new  movement  would 
lead  to  a  breaking  away  from  the  old  ac- 
cepted religion  of  Israel. 


274  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

Many  of  the  more  prominent  Rabbis, 
however,  readily  assisted  the  movement. 
Some  of  them,  such  as  Samuel  Mohilewer, 
Mordecai  Eliashberg,  and  his  son  Jonathan, 
Mordecai  Joffe,  and  others,  became  leaders 
in  the  new  Zionism,  and  devoted  time  and 
energy  to  the  furthering  of  its  interests. 
Some  of  them  adopted  the  theory  of  Ka- 
lischer,  that  the  Messianic  era  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  settlement  of  Jews  in  the  Holy 
Land.  Others  argued  that  the  promise  of 
a  miraculous  redemption  would  be  fulfilled 
only  when  the  Jews  were  found  worthy. 
After  they  shall  have  established  themselves 
upon  the  soil  of  Palestine,  where  alone  they 
will  be  enabled  to  practice  their  religion  in 
all  its  details,  and  thus  become  worthy  of  a 
higher  manifestation  of  God's  kindness,  the 
miracles  and  the  wonders  will  come,  Elijah 
and  the  son  of  David  and  the  Messianic 
era.'"  Others,  again,  entirely  dissociated  the 
new  movement  from  the  Messianic  hope, 
and,  on  every  occasion,  were  careful  to  em- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  275 

phasize  that  it  was  not  their  intention  to 
create  a  Jewish  State.  Living  in  Palestine 
and  building  up  its  ruins  are  in  themselves 
meritorious  acts.^  As  there  are  many  com- 
mandments which  can  be  fulfilled  only  in 
Palestine,  there  are  good  reasons  for  sup- 
porting the  movement  for  the  colonization 
of  the  Holy  Land.''  Some  of  the  more  en- 
lightened among  them  ventured  to  declare 
that  the  redemption  will  not,  as  is  commonly 
believed,  be  accompanied  by  miracles  or  su- 
pernatural events.  It  will  come  about  by 
the  voluntary  activity  of  the  Jews,  assisted 
by  the  great  powers  of  the  world,  as  in  the 
time  of  Zerubbabel  and  Ezra  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  Jewish  commonwealth  was 
effected  in  a  perfectly  natural  way,  by  the 
return  of  the  loyal  and  faithful  and  the  per- 
mission and  assistance  of  a  non-Jewish  king. 
Nor  is  it  necessary  for  all  Israelites  to  go 
back  to  Palestine.  Palestine  should  be  the 
national  centre  for  the  Jews  of  the  whole 
world.''     Upon  this  last  theory  is  built  the 


276  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

spiritual  Zionism  of  to-day,  the  most  noted 
exponent  of  which  is  the  famous  Hebrew- 
essayist,  Asher  Ginzberg  (Ahad  Ha-' Am), 
who  skilfully  worked  out  this  doctrine  in  its 
details  upon  a  philosophic  basis.  Articles 
and  books  have  been  written  by  the  Rabbis 
with  a  view  to  reconciling  the  Zionist  move- 
ment with  the  Jewish  Messianic  ideal. 
Casuistry  and  homiletics  are  employed  to 
justify  the  movement  from  the  Jewish  tradi- 
tional standpoint.  But  the  chief  workers, 
those  who  sacrificed  much  of  their  conveni- 
ence and  comfort  and  went  to  Palestine  to 
help  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  young  colonies, 
have  been  too  much  engrossed  in  the  prob- 
lems confronting  them  to  care  very  much 
about  the  dilemmas  presented  to  the  Rabbis. 
However,  the  belief  in  a  personal  Messiah, 
whose  advent  is  to  be  accompanied  by 
many  miracles  and  wonders,  is  still  potent, 
and  keeps  many  of  the  orthodox  Jews  out  of 
the  Zionist  camp.  After  the  first  Basle 
Congress  (1897),  when  Zionism  assumed  its 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  277 


present,  political  aspect,  Dr.  Max  Nordaii, 
the  Vice-President  of  the  Congress,  found 
it  necessary  to  address  an  article  to  the  He- 
brew-reading public,"*  in  which  he  disclaimed 
all  pretensions  of  Messiahship  for  himself 
or  for  his  colleague.  Dr.  Theodor  Herzl. 
Yet  Zionism  has  been  making  wonderful 
progress,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
ultra-orthodox,  who  are  waiting  for  a  Mes- 
siah, and  will  do  nothing  before  God's 
anointed  has  made  his  appearance,  and  in 
spite  of  the  reformers,  who  regard  Zionism 
as  a  menace  to  the  complete  emancipation  of 
the  Jews  and  a  grave  error  in  its  very  incep- 
tion, opposed  to  the  mission  laid  upon 
the  Jew  by  Providence  and  by  history.  Both 
orthodoxy  and  reform  contribute  members 
to  the  ranks  of  Zionism,  and  even  those  who 
have  abandoned  the  Jewish  religion  have 
been  attracted  by  the  national  ideals  upheld 
by  Zionism,  and  have  become  enthusiastic 
workers  in  its  cause.  It  is  a  phase  in  the 
evolution  of  the  Jewish  Messianic  hope 
which,  whether  successful  or  not,  is  destined 


278  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

to  make  an  impression  and,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  exert  a  wholesome  influence  on  Jew- 
ish history. 

Sacred  as  Zionism  is  to  many  of  its  ad- 
herents, it  cannot  and  will  not  take  the  place 
of  the  Messianic  hope.  Zionism  aims  at  the 
establishment  of  a  Jewish  State  in  Palestine 
under  the  protection  of  the  powers  of  Eu- 
rope. The  Messianic  hope  promises  the  es- 
tablishment, by  the  Jews,  of  a  world-power 
in  Palestine  to  which  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth  will  pay  homage.  Zionism,  even  in  its 
political  aspect,  will  fulfil  only  one  phase  of 
the  Jewish  Messianic  hope.  As  such,  if  suc- 
cessful, it  may  contribute  toward  the  full 
realization  of  the  hope.  If  not  successful, 
it  will  not  deprive  the  Jews  of  the  hope. 
The  Messianic  hope  is  wider  than  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  Jews,  it  is  more  compre- 
hensive than  the  establishment  of  a  Jewish, 
politically  independent  State.  It  participates 
in  the  larger  ideals  of  humanity,  the  ideals 
of  perfection  for  the  human  race,  but  it  re- 
mains on  Jewish  soil,  and  retains  its  peculi- 


REFORM  AND  ZIONISM  279 

arly  Jewish  significance.  It  promises  uni- 
versal peace,  an  age  of  justice  and  of  right- 
eousness, an  age  in  which  all  men  will  rec- 
ognize that  God  is  One  and  His  Name  is 
One.  But  this  glorious  age  will  come  about 
through  the  regeneration  of  the  Jewish 
people,  which  in  turn  will  be  effected  by  a 
man,  a  scion  of  the  house  of  David,  sent  by 
God  to  guide  them  on  the  road  to  righteous- 
ness. The  people  chosen  by  God  to  be  His 
messengers  to  the  world  will  then  be  able  to 
accomplish  their  mission  of  regenerating  the 
world.  This  was  the  Messianic  hope  pro- 
claimed by  the  prophets  and  sages,  and  this 
is  the  Messianic  hope  of  most  Jews  of  to- 
day, the  difference  between  the  various  sec- 
tions being  only  a  difference  in  the  details 
of  the  hope.""  Thanks  to  the  freedom 
always  accorded  to  the  interpretation  of 
Jewish  dogmas,  these  differences  cannot  cre- 
ate schisms  in  the  Jev^ish  camp,  and  every 
faction,  each  in  its  own  way,  is  contributing 
its  portion  toward  the  realization  of  this 
great  and  glorious  ideal  of  the  Jews. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

The  Messianic  Hope  in  the  Jewish 
Liturgy 

The  Messianic  hope  finds  its  fullest  and 
noblest  expression  in  the  Jewish  prayer- 
book.  The  sublime  aspirations  of  the  pro- 
phet, the  speculations  of  the  sage  and 
philosopher,  the  fancies  of  the  mystic,  and 
the  imaginary  flights  of  the  homilist  are  the 
themes  elaborated  by  the  religious  poet.  At 
times  he  sings  of  prophetic  universalism, 
again  of  exclusive  nationalism.  One  tells 
of  the  coming  of  a  personal  Messiah,  a  scion 
of  the  house  of  David,  who  shall  work  won- 
ders in  Israel's  behalf,  and  confound  its 
enemies.  Another  speaks  of  God  as  the  Re- 
deemer, of  a  theocracy  characterized  by  per- 
fect righteousness  and  peace.  One  paints 
the  sublime  picture  of  Isaiah,  the  highest 
ideals  of  the  most  advanced  humanity;  an- 
other gives  a  minute  description  of  the  feast 
.prepared  for  the  righteous  after  the  resur- 
rection. Everywhere,  in  one  form  or  an- 
other, the  hope  finds  fervent  expression — in 
the  daily  prayers,  the  prayers  for  Sabbath 


284  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

and  festival,  in  the  additional  hymns  and 
songs  (Piyyutim)  from  time  to  time  added 
to  the  prayer-book,  in  the  prayers  for  special 
occasions,  even  in  the  prayers  for  king  and 
government.  The  hope  of  redemption  from 
exile  and  of  the  re-establishment  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  in  all  its  glory  on  its  ancient  in- 
heritance, may  be  regarded  as  the  key-note 
of  the  Jewish  prayer-book. 

The  fact  is  not  at  all  surprising  if  we  con- 
sider the  circumstances  under  which  the 
Jewish  prayer-book  was  composed  and  com- 
piled. In  its  main  elements,  the  Jewish  lit- 
urgy is  pre-Exilic,  some  portions  dating  as 
far  back  as  the  first  commonwealth.  But  its 
definite  shape  it  did  not  assume  until  the  first 
century  of  the  common  era,  and  it  was  not 
fixed  in  its  present  form  until  six  or  seven 
centuries  later.  The  chief  prayer  of  the 
Jewish  liturgy,  the  Shemonch  'Esrch,  was 
compiled  under  the  supervision  of  the  Nasi 
Gamaliel,'  soon  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  when  the  wound  was  still  fresh,  and 
the  hope  of  speedy  redemption  most  intense. 

The  other  portions  of  the  prayer-book 
were  composed  amid  the  miseries  and  hor- 
rors of  the  Diaspora,  during  the  periods  of 
the  dark  middle  ages,  darkest  to  the  wander- 


APPENDIX  285 


ing,  despised,  and  hated  Jew.  Whether  un- 
der pagan,  Christian,  or  Moslem  rule,  the 
Jew  was  constantly  reminded  of  his  abject 
position  in  the  world.  The  desire  for  a  re- 
turn to  his  independence  and  his  national 
home  grew  in  proportion  to  his  misery,  and 
inspired  singer  and  sage  in  their  prayers  to 
Israel's  God. 

It  is  but  natural  that  the  Jewish  prayer- 
book,  developed  under  such  influences, 
should  be  one,  long,  continuous  cry  for  re- 
demption from  the  terrors  of  exile.  All  the 
prayers  for  individual  well-being,  for  ma- 
terial prosperity,  for  life,  health,  and  wealth, 
are  drowned  in  the  pathetic,  heartrending 
national  prayer  for  the  restoration  of  exiled 
Israel  to  the  land  of  its  fathers.  Prayers  for 
the  forgiveness  of  sin,  for  a  better  under- 
standing of  God's  law,  for  rain  and  dew,  for 
good  harvest  and  plenty,  find  their  place  in 
the  Jewish  liturgy.  But  even  these  are  per- 
meated with  the  great,  all-embracing  hope, 
to  which  they  are  really  subordinate.  It 
seemed  to  the  composers  and  compilers  of 
the  Jewish  prayer-book  that  all  transient  and 
material  l^opes  would  be  realized  in  the  per- 
fection of  the  whole,  when  Israel  would  be 
restored  to  its  ancient  inheritance,  and  tlie 


286  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

glory  of  the  one,   true  God  would  fill  the 
earth. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Jewish 
liturgy,  even  such  portions  as  were  composed 
after  the  spread  of  the  Kabbalah,  contains 
few  of  the  extravagant  conceptions  of  the 
Messianic  era  found  in  the  apocalyptic  writ- 
ings, in  the  Talmudic  Haggadah,  and  the 
later  Midrashim.  This  phenomenon  appears 
the  more  interesting  when  we  consider  that 
many  of  the  Piyyutim  are  based  directly  on 
legends  and  tales,  the  interpretation  and 
commentary  of  the  Haggadah.  Only  the 
more  important  elements  of  the  Messianic 
era,  such  as  the  universal  recognition  of 
Israel's  God,  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  sacrificial  cult,  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  gathering 
of  all  Israel  to  the  Promised  Land,  are  em- 
phasized. The  fanciful  and  materialistic 
elements,  so  elaborately  treated  by  the  Rab- 
bis and  mystics,  find  but  scant  expression  in 
the  liturgy.  Indeed,  they  seem  to  have  been 
studiously  avoided.  The  Rabbis,  who  were 
the  composers  and  compilers  of  the  prayers, 
appear  to  have  kept  the  imaginative  fancies 
to  which  they  gave  utterance  in  the  acade- 
mies, and  which  were  later  incorporated  in 


APPENDIX  287 


the  Talmudim  and  Midrashim,  carefully  dis- 
tinct, not  only  from  the  interpretation  of  the 
legal  injunctions  of  Judaism,  but  also  from 
public  worship.  When  discoursing  on  their 
favorite  theme  of  the  redemption,  they  gave 
their  imagination  full  play,  and  indulged  in 
extravagant  presentations  of  the  anxiously 
awaited  era.  But  they  usually  became  more 
serious  and  exact  when  they  approached  the 
subject  of  prayer,  which  was  intended  to  in- 
fluence the  lives  of  the  people  and  the  future 
of  the  nation.  Most  of  the  religious  Payyc- 
tanim  lay  stress  on  the  universalistic  concep- 
tion, the  prophetic  hope  of  a  moral  and  re- 
ligious regeneration,  the  hope  that  Israel 
may  become  an  independent  nation,  living 
under  a  pure  theocracy.  The  narrower 
views,  the  more  materialistic  accretions  to 
the  great  ideal  are  relegated  to  the  back- 
ground. 

The  most  prominent  and  one  of  the  oldest 
portions  of  the  Jewish  liturgy  is  the  'Ami- 
dah,  or  TcHllah  (Prayer)  proper.  It  is  usu- 
ally known  as  the  Shcmonch  'Esrch  (Eigh- 
teen), its  name  indicating  the  number  of 
Benedictions  contained  in  it  at  the  time  of  its 
first  compilation,  to  which  an  additional 
Benediction  was  later  added.     This  prayer, 


288  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

which  forms  an  important  feature  of  each  of 
the  three  daily  services,  contains  a  number 
of  allusions  and  references  to  the  Messianic 
hope.  In  the  very  first  of  the  introductory 
Benedictions,  God  is  described  as  *'  He  who 
bringeth  a  redeemer  to  the  children "  of 
Israel.  In  the  second,  the  hope  for  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  is  so  strongly  empha- 
sized as  to  make  it  appear  to  have  been  in- 
troduced by  the  Pharisees  at  the  time  of  the 
pre-eminence  of  the  Sadducees,  who  rejected 
the  belief  in  resurrection.*  The  seventh  is  a 
prayer  to  God  to  redeem  Israel  for  the  sake 
of  His  name,  even  though  Israel  be  found 
guilty.  The  tenth,  which  is  designated  in 
the  Talmud  as  the  prayer  for  "  the  gather- 
ing of  the  exiles,"  "  begins  with  an  exhorta- 
tion to  blow  the  trumpet,"*  and  raise  a  ban- 
ner °  announcing  liberty  to  the  exiles  gath- 
ered from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth." 
The  eleventh  is  a  prayer  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  independent  Government  for 
Israel,  with  its  own  judges  and  counsellors,' 
under  the  supremacy  of  God.  The  four- 
teenth is  a  prayer  for  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  re-establishment  there  of 
the  "  throne  of  David,"  and  the  fifteenth  * 
repeats  the  prayer  for  the  restoration  of  the 


APPENDIX  289 


Davidic  dynasty/  The  seventeenth  is  a 
prayer  for  the  restoration  of  the  Temple 
worship  and  the  sacrificial  cult,  concluding 
with  the  hope,  ''  our  eyes  shall  see  when  thou 
returnest  to  Zion  in  mercy."  Thus,  out  of 
the  nineteen  Benedictions  of  the  'Amidah, 
seven  are  distinctly  and  directly  Messianic, 
and  the  others  contain  Messianic  references 
and  allusions. 

One  of  the  sublimest  and  most  universal- 
istic  prayers  for  the  approach  of  the  Messi- 
anic period  is  included  in  the  various  'Ami- 
dahs  for  the  New  Year  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  in  the  third  Benediction  soon 
after  the  Kediishah.  I  shall  give  it  in  full, 
because  it  is  a  fair  example  of  the  exalted 
conception  of  the  future  era  held  by  the 
learned  Jew. 

Now,  therefore,  O  Lord  our  God,  impose  Thine 
awe  upon  all  Thy  works,  and  Thy  dread  upon  all  that 
Thou  hast  created,  that  all  works  may  fear  Thee, 
and  all  creatures  prostrate  themselves  before  Thee; 
that  they  may  all  form  a  single  bond  to  do  Thy 
will  with  a  perfect  heart,  even  as  we  know,  O  Lord 
our  God,  that  dominion  is  Thine,  strength  is  in  Thy 
hand,  and  might  in  Thy  right  hand,  and  that  Thy 
name  is  to  be  feared  above  all  that  Thou  hast 
created. 

Give  Thy  glory,  O  Lord,  unto  Thy  people,  praise 


290  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


to  them  that  fear  Thee,  hope  to  th.m  that  seek 
Thee,  and  free  speech  to  them  that  wait  for  Thee, 
joy  to  the  land,  gladness  to  the  city,  a  flourishing 
horn  to  David  Thy  servant,  and  a  clear,  shining  light 
unto  the  son  of  Jesse,  Thine  anointed  (Messiah), 
speedily  in  our  days. 

Then  shall  the  just  also  see  and  be  glad,  and  the 
upright  shall  exult,  and  the  pious  triumphantly  re- 
joice, while  iniquity  shall  close  her  mouth,  and  all 
wickedness  be  wholly  consumed  by  smoke,  when 
Thou  makest  the  dominion  of  arrogance  to  pass  away 
from  the  earth. 

And  Thou,  O  Lord,  shalt  reign.  Thou  alone  ever 
all  Thy  works  on  Mount  Zion,  the  dwelling-place  of 
Thy  glory,  and  in  Jerusalem,  Thy  holy  city,  as  it  is 
written  in  Thy  holy  words,  "  The  Lord  shall  reign 
forever.  Thy  God,  O  Zion,  unto  all  generations. 
Praise  ye  the  Lord." '" 

Similar  sentiments  are  expressed  in  the 
noble  words  in  the  Kedushah  for  the  morn- 
ing service  of  Sabbaths  and  festivals." 

From  Thy  place  shine  forth,  O  our  King,  and  reign 
over  us,  for  we  wait  for  Thee.  When  wilt  Thou 
reign  in  Zion?  Speedily,  even  in  our  days,  do  Thou 
dwell  there,  and  forever.  Mayest  Thou  be  magnified 
and  sanctified  in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem  Thy  city 
throughout  all  generations  and  to  all  eternity,  O 
let  our  eyes  behold  Thy  kingdom,  according  to  the 
words  that  were  spoken  in  the  songs  of  Thy  might, 
by  David  Thy  righteous  anointed  (Messiah):  "The 
Lord  shall  reign  forever.  Thy  God,  O  Zion,  unto  all 
generations.     Praise  ye  the  Lord." 


APPENDIX  291 


It  will  be  noticed  that  in  both  of  these 
selections  the  personal  Messiah,  although  re- 
ferred to,  is  given  little  prominence.  God 
alone  is  to  be  King  in  Zion. 

'Alcnii,  a  prayer  recited  at  the  end  of  every 
service,  is  still  more  universal  in  its  concep- 
tion, for  it  does  not  even  refer  to  a  personal 
Messiah,  or  to  the  redemption  of  Israel,  or 
the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem.  It  looks  for- 
v^ard  to  the  perfection  of  the  world  under  the 
kingship  of  the  Almighty,  when  all  the  chil- 
dren of  men,  even  the  wicked  of  the  earth, 
will  worship  God,  give  glory  to  His  Name, 
and  accept  the  yoke  of  His  kingdom.  The 
Biblical  passage  quoted  here  is  not  the  one 
from  Psalm  146:10,  where  Zion  is  ad- 
dressed, with  which  the  two  selections  above 
quoted  conclude,  but  from  Exodus  15:18, 
*'  The  Lord  will  reign  for  ever  and  ever," 
and  from  Zechariah  14:9,  "And  the  Lord 
shall  be  king  over  all  the  earth ;  in  that  day 
shall  the  Lord  be  one  and  Llis  Name  one." 

Prayers  for  Israel's  restoration  to  Zion 
are  scattered  throughout  the  morning  and 
evening  services,  especially  in  the  blessings 
preceding  the  Shema'  and  the  'Amidah.  In 
the  Additional  {Mnsaf)  'Amidahs  for  Sab- 
baths, New  Moons,   and  festivals,  the  re- 


292  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

demption  itself  is  made  only  a  means  toward 
the  full  observance  of  the  law  of  God  in  all 
its  details,  since  only  if  the  Temple  were  re- 
built, and  the  sacrificial  cult  re-established 
in  Jerusalem,  the  Israelites  could  perform  all 
the  duties  obligatory  upon  them. 

The  Kaddish  is  also  a  universalistic  prayer 
for  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God 
upon  earth,  making  no  reference  to  a  per- 
sonal Messiah.  The  Kaddish,  however,  that 
is  recited  by  mourners  at  the  cemetery  after 
the  burial  of  the  dead  and  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  study  of  a  Talmudic  treatise,  refers 
to  the  resurrection,  and  to  the  rebuilding 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple." 

The  belief  in  a  personal  Messiah  is  more 
marked  in  the  Benediction  recited  after 
meals.  In  the  third  blessing  God's  mercy  is 
invoked  in  behalf  of  "  Israel  Thy  people, 
Jerusalem  Thy  city,  Zion  the  abiding-place 
of  Thy  glory,  the  kingdom  of  the  house  of 
David  Thy  Messiah,  and  the  great  and  holy 
house  that  was  called  by  Thy  name."  In  the 
Sefardic  ritual,  the  prayer  for  the  restoration 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  house  of  David  is 
omitted,  but  inserted  at  the  end  of  the  sec- 
tion. On  Sabbaths  an  additional  prayer  is 
here  recited,  which  concludes  with  the  hope 


APPENDIX  293 


of  seeing  the  consolation  of  Zion  and  the  re- 
building of  Jerusalem.  On  New  Moons  and 
festivals  another  section  is  inserted,  praying 
God  to  remember  the  Messiah  son  of  David, 
Jerusalem,  and  the  people  of  Israel.  The 
short  prayers  (Ha-Rahaman)  that  conclude 
the  fourth  Benediction  are  prayers  for  re- 
demption from  exile,  for  the  restoration  of 
Palestine,  and  for  the  appearance  of  Elijah 
the  prophet,  "  who  will  bring  us  good  tid- 
ings, salvation,  and  consolation."  ''  Finally 
God  is  invoked  to  make  us  worthy  of  the 
days  of  the  Messiah  (of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple)  and  of  the  life  of  the  world  to 
come.  In  the  grace  after  meals  recited  at  a 
circumcision  celebration,  a  few  more  prayers 
beginning  with  Ha-Rahaman  are  added. 
The  last  two  of  these  read  as  follows : 

May  the  All-merciful,  regardful  of  the  merit  of 
them  that  are  akin  by  the  blood  of  circumcision, 
send  us  His  anointed,  walking  in  His  integrity,  to 
give  good  tidings  and  consolation  to  the  people  that 
is  scattered  and  dispersed  among  the  peoples.  May 
the  All-merciful  send  us  the  righteous  priest,"  who 
remains  withdrawn  in  concealment  until  a  throne, 
bright  as  the  sun  and  radiant  as  the  diamond,  shall 
be  prepared  for  him,  the  prophet  who  covered  his 
face  with  his  mantle,  and  wrapped  himself  therein, 
with  whom  is  God's  covenant  of  life  and  of  peace. 


294  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

In  the  Benedictions  recited  after  the  read- 
ing of  the  Haftarah,  God,  the  One  "  who 
sayeth  and  doeth,  who  speaketh  and  fulfill- 
eth,  whose  words  are  all  truth  and  righteous- 
ness "  is  invoked  to  have  pity  on  Zion  "  the 
home  of  our  life,"  and  gladden  us  with  the 
arrival  of  Elijah  the  prophet  and  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  house  of  David. 

May  he  soon  come  and  rejoice  our  hearts.  Let 
no  stranger  sit  upon  his  throne,  nor  let  others  any 
hunger  inherit  his  glory;  fcr  by  the  holy  name  Thou 
didst  swear  unto  him,  that  his  light  should  not  be 
quenched  forever. 

The  reference  to  Elijah  as  the  forerunner 
of  the  Messianic  era  is  elaborated  in  the 
special  hymns  (Zemiroth)  sung  on  Satur- 
day night  before  the  reading  of  the  Habda- 
lah  prayer.  The  Talmudic  idea  that  Elijah 
would  not  appear  on  the  eve  of  Sabbaths  or 
festivals,'"  gave  rise  to  the  hope  that  he 
might  come  on  Saturday  night."  The  lit- 
urgical poet  availed  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  elaborate  this  theme  in  the  hymns 
recited  soon  after  the  evening  service  which 
concludes  the  Sabbath.  These  poems  con- 
tain prayers  for  a  blessed  week,  for  a  com- 
fortable livelihood,  for  health  for  oneself 
and  family.     The  main  prayer,  however,  is 


APPENDIX  295 


that  the  comhig  week  may  bring-  in  its 
wake  a  national  regeneration  through  the 
appearance  of  the  Messiah  and  EHjah  the 
prophet.  In  the  Sefardic  ritual,  the  angels 
Michael  and  Gabriel  are  mentioned  as  ac- 
companying Elijah  and  the  Messiah. 

Similarly,  the  belief  that  the  final  redemp- 
tion, like  the  redemption  from  Egyptian 
bondage,  would  take  place  during  the  month 
of  Nisan,"  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  Messi- 
anic Piyyutim  for  the  Passover  festival,  as 
well  as  for  the  special  Yozcr  recited  on  Sab- 
bath Hodcsh  and  Sabbath  Ha-Gadol.  The 
eve  of  Passover,  the  Lei  Shimmiirim,  is  made 
the  symbol  of  future  redemption.  Refer- 
ences are  made  to  this  in  the  evening  service 
of  the  synagogue,  but  more  especially  and 
more  emphatically  during  the  Seder  service 
recited  at  home  during  the  first  two  evenings 
of  the  Passover.  The  cup  of  Elijah,  a  cup 
of  wine  placed  on  the  table  and  not  touched 
until  the  end  of  the  service,  shows  the  in- 
tensity of  the  Jewish  hope  that  Elijah  would 
come,  on  the  evening  of  the  celebration  of 
the  first  redemption  of  Israel  to  announce 
the  final  redemption.*^  The  very  first  sec- 
tion, recited  while  the  master  of  the  house 
raises  the  plate  containing  the  Maz::oth,  and 


296  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

invites  all  strangers  to  partake  of  the  meal, 
concludes  with  the  words  expressing  the 
assured  hope,  that  while  "  this  year  we  are 
here,  the  coming  year  we  shall  be  in  the  land 
of  Israel ;  this  year  we  are  slaves,  the  coming 
year  we  shall  be  free."  The  benediction  con- 
cluding the  first  part  of  the  service  is  a 
fervent  prayer  for  freedom  of  body  and  soul, 
for  a  restoration  to  Palestine  and  the  re-in- 
troduction of  the  Temple  service."  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  service,  a  short  sentence, 
the  climax  and  epitome  of  all  Jewish  long- 
ings and  wishes,  is  recited,  some  lovingly 
repeating  it  three  or  four  times,  as  though 
loath  to  part  from  it.  The  sentence  con- 
sists of  but  three  Hebrew  words,  "  Next 
year  in  Jerusalem,"  but  it  speaks  volumes  to 
the  aching  heart  of  the  loyal  Jew.  The 
sentiment  of  the  popular  hymn  Addir  Hu, 
which  expresses  the  hope  that  God  will  build 
His  house  speedily,  even  in  our  own  days, 
is  a  fitting  addition  to  that  expressed  in  the 
short  sentence,  "  Next  year  In  Jerusalem."  ^ 
In  the  evening  service  for  the  seventh  day 
of  Passover,  reference  is  made  to  the  ruler 
of  the  house  of  Jesse,  whose  dominion  will 
extend  from  sea  to  sea.  In  the  Sillnk  of  the 
same  day,  God  is  asked  to  send  the  mes- 


APPENDIX  297 


senger  of  good  tidings,  to  avenge  Israel's 
wrongs,  to  cause  "  the  plant  of  righteousness 
to  blossom,"  and  God  will  name  this  mes- 
senger ''the  Lord,  our  righteousness.'"" 
Samuel's  opinion,  that  political  independence 
will  be  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Messi- 
anic era,*"  is  emphasized  in  the  Zulath ""  for 
the  same  day,  although  the  Payyetan  is  care- 
ful to  add  that  this  will  be  accompanied  by 
many  miracles. 

A  sublime  picture  of  the  Messianic  era  is 
painted  in  the  Piyyut  for  the  Malkuyyoth 
service  for  the  Musaf  of  New  Year's  Day. 
In  his  vision,  the  poet  sees  idolatry  give  way 
before  the  worship  of  the  only  one  God, 
even  before  the  appearance  of  Elijah,  the 
pagan  nations  destroyed,  and  God's  throne 
established  in  glory  and  magnificence.  He 
beholds  all  the  nobles  of  the  land  hastening 
to  do  service  to  "  the  smallest  of  nations," 
carrying  it  on  their  arms  to  the  place  long 
promised  to  the  Patriarchs;  kings  throwing 
off  their  royal  mantles  and  paying  homage 
to  the  God  of  Israel,  loudly  proclaiming  His 
sole  sovereignty  of  the  universe ;  all  creation, 
even  the  "  desolate  depths  of  the  world," 
shouting  forth  joyously  that  the  Lord  reign- 
eth.     The  secret  of  the  period  of  Israel's 


298  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

redemption,  long  hidden  from  the  knowledge 
of  men,  is  revealed  on  this  day,"  and  the 
throne  of  the  Messiah  is  firmly  established, 
even  as  the  sun  is  established  in  the  firma- 
ment. The  same  theme  is  also  elaborated 
in  another  Piyyut  recited  during  the  Musaf 
service  of  New  Year's  Day  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement.^  In  the  Messianic  age,  all  will 
come  to  worship  God  and  bless  His  name. 
His  righteousness  will  be  proclaimed  to  the 
furthermost  islands ;  people  that  never  knew 
Him  will  seek  Him;  all  the  corners  of  the 
earth  will  praise  Him;  the  idolaters  will 
throw  away  their  idols  and  come  together  to 
worship  God  with  reverence ;  mountains  and 
islands  will  rejoice  in  His  kingdom;  distant 
nations  will  come  and  give  the  royal  crown 
to  Him. 

In  the  Aramaic  Piyyut  Akdanmth,  which 
is  recited  on  the  first  day  of  the  Feast  of 
Weeks,  just  before  the  reading  of  the  portion 
of  the  Law,  all  the  heavenly  and  earthly 
blessings  are  described  that  will  come  to 
Israel  with  the  final  redemption.  Jerusalem 
will  then  be  protected  by  God's  glory  by  day 
and  by  night,  the  righteous  will  be  seated  on 
thrones  of  fine  gold,  having  seven  steps,  and 
the  beauty  of  their  countenance  will  be  like 


APPENDIX  2C)C) 


the  clear  sky  and  the  shining  stars — a  beauty 
that  beggars  all  description,  that  was  neither 
heard  of  nor  seen  by  any  of  the  prophets. 
They  will  walk  in  Paradise,  accompanied  by 
the  Divine  Fresence  (Shechinah) ,  and  point- 
ing to  it  they  will  say :  "  This  is  the  One 
upon  whom  we  so  confidently  relied  while 
we  were  in  captivity.  Now  He  is  conferring 
upon  us  the  long-promised  eternal  bliss." 
In  a  battle  between  Leviathan  and  the  wild 
ox  (Shor  ha-Bar),  the  latter  will  gore  Le- 
viathan to  death,  and  be  himself  dispatched 
by  one  of  the  fins  of  the  sea-monster.  They 
will  then  both  be  cut  into  pieces  by  God 
Himself,  and  served  to  the  righteous  at 
tables  made  of  precious  stones,  with  rivers 
flowing  with  finest  oil  and  wine,  kept  for 
the  feast  since  the  time  of  Creation.'''' 

The  Yozcroth  for  the  distinguished  Sab- 
baths of  the  year,  recited  in  a  few  syna- 
gogues and  included  only  in  the  more  com- 
plete prayer-books,  present  the  fullest  ex- 
pression of  the  national  grief  of  the  Jewish 
people.  Almost  all  of  them  are  pervaded 
by  this  one  thought : 

Owr  sufferings  are  great,  unendurable.  Thou,  O 
God,  hast  promised  to  redeem  us.  Hasten  therefore 
the   period  of   redemption,   arise   and   come   to   our 


300  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 


help.  Thy  own  name  is  not  complete  while  we  are 
in  exile,"  the  enemy  wounds  our  hearts,  throws 
stones  at  us,  afflicts  us,  treads  us  under  foot,  scoffs 
at  us  and  our  hope  for  redemption,  at  our  trust  in 
Thee,^  but  the  poor  captive  in  a  strange  land,  even 
as  a  slave,  as  a  bondwoman  in  Egypt,  waits  for 
Thee  since  the  day  that  Thou  hast  forsaken  her. 
Yea,  we  are  confident  of  our  redemption.  The 
daughter  of  Zion  may  indeed  rejoice,  for  our 
Messiah  is  coming;  the  virgin  of  Israel  may  indeed 
shout  with  joy,  for  the  angel  Michael  will  soon 
announce  from  the  mountain-top :  "  A  redeemer 
hath  come  to  Zion." '" 

A  world  of  pathos  is  contained  in  all  these 
Piyytitim,  which  mirror  the  abject  condition 
of  unfortunate  Israel  during  the  dark  ages. 
The  most  pathetic  of  these  hymns  are  in  the 
form  of  dialogues  between  God  and  Israel, 
Israel  complaining  of  its  bitter  lot,  and  God 
assuring  it  of  a  speedy  redemption.'^ 

In  the  Zemiroth  chanted  at  the  evening 
and  noon  meals  of  Sabbath,  prayers  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  are  very  frequent. 
The  theme  of  some  of  the  Hosha'anoth  re- 
cited on  Hosha^ana  Rahha,  and  of  some  of 
the  ScUhoth  recited  on  various  occasions,  are 
Messianic.  Even  those  Selihoth  which  are 
mainly  prayers  for  forgiveness  of  sin  have 
this  hope  as  their  refrain,  frequently  consid- 


Att't.NUlX  301 


ering  present  suffering-  either  as  punishment 
or  as  atonement  for  sins  committed.  Natur- 
ally, redemption  is  the  main  theme  of  the 
midnight  dirges  sung  by  pious  Jews  {Tik- 
kun  Hazoth)  and  of  most  of  the  Kinnoth 
for  the  Ninth  Day  of  Ab,  the  anniversary  of 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 

This  sketch/'  inadequate  though  it  is,  suffi- 
ciently indicates  the  important  position  the 
Messianic  idea  occupies  in  the  Jewish  liturgy. 
The  hope  for  the  final  redemption  is  both  the 
background  and  the  keynote  of  the  prayer- 
book.  The  expression  given  to  the  hope 
varies  in  different  portions  of  the  liturgy, 
from  the  highest  conception  of  universal 
brotherhood  and  peace,  of  perfect  righteous- 
ness and  purest  religion,  to  the  material,  ex- 
clusive, and  perhaps  coarse  notions  of  indi- 
vidual well-being  and  national  supremacy. 
The  main  ideal,  however,  is  permanent,  the 
background  is  the  same,  the  changes  are 
merely  the  reflection  of  the  conditions  pres- 
ent in  the  outside  world.  Here  falls  the 
black  shadow  cast  by  pagan  cruelty  and  bar- 
barity, there  the  trail  of  blood  of  Jewish 
martyrs,  victims  to  the  bigotry  of  Christian 
crusaders,  inquisitors,  and  popes;  here  we 
feel    the    tears    of    the    miserable    sufferers 


302  THE  MESSIAH  IDEA 

under  Moslem  rule,  there  the  contempt 
for  and  hatred  of  the  covetous,  lustful 
monarchs  and  princes  of  Europe.  Revenge 
and  humility,  despair  and  hope,  con- 
tempt for  the  world  and  a  desire  for  its 
goods,  all  find  their  place  in  the  Jewish 
liturgy,  and  all  are  merged  into  one  all-per- 
vading, all-embracing  longing  for  restora- 
tion to  the  land  of  Israel's  inheritance,  for 
the  establishment  of  God's  rule  upon  earth. 
The  liturgy,  more  than  the  literature,  indi- 
cates the  intensity  in  the  Jewish  conscious- 
ness of  the  Messianic  hope.  Through  its 
constant  use,  the  prayer-book  nurtured  and 
strengthened  this  hope  in  the  hearts  of  the 
multitudes,  and  made  it  a  part  of  their  ex- 
istence. The  Bible,  the  Talmud,  the  philo- 
sophic and  the  mystic  writings,  accessible 
only  to  the  more  learned  of  the  community, 
formulated  and  developed  the  lofty  Messi- 
anic ideal,  which  was  presented  by  the  re- 
ligious poet  to  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
in  a  language  both  appealing  and  attractive, 
and  made  it  an  inseparable  part  of  the 
Jewish  consciousness. 


NOTES 


NOTES 

CHAPTER  I 

^Sanhcdrin  38,^  Ahoth  R.  Nathan  I,  8  (ed.  Schech- 
ter,  p.  3"  et  scq.).  There  it  is  related  that  Adam's 
sin  and  conviction  occurred  on  the  very  day  of  his 
birth. 

*  Cf.  Kiddiishin  40",  w^here  this  passage  is  inter- 
preted to  refer  to  the  fate  of  the  righteous  man,  in 
this  and  in  the  future  world. 

^  Comp.  Klausner  in  the  Hebrew  monthly  Hashi- 
loah,  vol.  XII,  p.  8. 

*  Hos.  3  :  5,  Jer.  30 :  g,  Ezek.  37 :  24,  25 ;  cf.  Sanhe- 
drin  98^ 

°  Cf.  Stade,  Die  Messianische  Hoffnung  im  Psalter, 
in  his  Akademische  Rcden  und  Ahhandlungcn,  p.  53 
et  seq.    (Giessen,   1899). 

^  Cf.  Hiihn,  Die  Messianische  Weissagungen,  vol. 
I,  §  3  (Freiburg,  1899),  who  regards  this  period  as 
the  one  in  which  the  Jewish  Messianic  hope  origi- 
nated, 

^  See  "  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  vol.  i,  s.  v. 
Amos. 

®  Cf.  Charles,  "  Eschatalogy,  Hebrew,  Jewish,  and 
Christian,"  p.  87,  n.  i  (London,  1899).  These  pas- 
sages are  supposed  by  many  critics  to  be  Exilic 
additions;  cf.  Nowack,  Die  Zukunftshoffnung  Israels 
in  der  assyrischen  Zeit,  in  Theologische  Abhand- 
lungen,  Holtzmann's  Festgabe,  pp.  38-41  (Leipzig, 
1902) . 


3o6  NOTES  [pp.  30-46 


^Cf.  Charles,  loc.  cit.,  p.  88,  n.  2.     Most  of  these 
passages  also  are  assigned  by  many  scholars  to  later 
periods;  cf.  Nowack,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  41-47. 
.    '"740-701  B.  CE. 
'     "Driver,  "Isaiah,  His  Life  and  Times,"  p.  112. 

^C/.,  however,  W.  R.  Smith,  "The  Prophets  of 
Israel,"  pp.  300-12  (London,  1902)  ;  also  Cheyne, 
"Introduction  to  Isaiah,"  pp.  62-66  (London,  1895), 
where  these  passages  are  held  to  be  post-Exilic. 

"  Cf.  Charles,  loc.  cit.,  p.  91,  n.  3 ;  Cheyne,  loc.  cit., 
pp.  9-16;  see,  however,  W.  R.  Smith,  loc.  cit.,  p.  309, 
and  n.   12. 

"  Cf.  Nowack,  loc.  cit.,  p.  47  et  seq. 

'"  Cf.  Goodspeed,  "  Israel's  Messianic  Hope,"  ch. 
VI  (New  York,  1900). 

^  Cf.  Is.  52:7;  see  Charles,  loc.  cit.,  p,  96;  cf., 
however,  Hastings,  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  s.  v. 
Nahum,  where  only  the  first  chapter  is  rejected. 

"  Cf.  Charles,  loc.  cit.,  p.  97. 

"  Cf.  Ezek.  36 :  22  et  seq.,  where  the  idea  is  ex- 
pressed that  the  redemption  of  Israel  and  its  restora- 
tion to  Palestine  will  be,  not  because  of  Israel's  good 
deeds,  but  in  order  that  God's  name  should  be 
sanctified  among  the  nations. 

"C/.  Joel  4:  15,  16  (A.  V.  3:  15,  16)  ;  cf.  Driver, 
"Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," ch.  vi,  §  2  (New  York,  1893);  Hastings, 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,'  s.  v.  Joel.  Isaiah  also 
hints  at  supernatural  events  that  will  attend  upon  the 
Messianic  period.     See  Is.  29:18;  30:26;  35:5. 

^  "  Isaiah,  His  Life  and  Times,"  pp.  175-80 ;  Hiihn, 
loc.  cit.,  §  19;  cf.,  however,  a  study  on  this  subject 
by  Rothstein  in  his  Gcnealogie  dcs  Konigs  Jojachin 


pp.  46-59]  NOTES  307 


und  seiner  Nachkoinmcn,  entitled  Ein  ubersehenes 
Zeugniss  fiir  die  messianische  Auffassung  des 
" Knechtes  Jahzvehs"  pp.  121-62  (Berlin,  1902); 
cf.  also,  Budde,  Die  sogenannten  Ebcd-Jahwe- 
Liedcr  (Giessen,  1900). 

^^  Cf.  Zech.  3:8;  6 :  12 ;  also  Jer.  23 :  5  ;  33  :  15  ;  see 
an  excellent  monograph  on  this  subject  by  Dr.  Ernest 
Sellin,  entitled  Seruhhahel  (Leipzig,  1898). 

^^Cf.  Hag.  2:6,  7,  21,  22. 

^"Jerusalem  will  be  called  the  city  of  truth,  and 
the  mount  of  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  holy  mount. ' 

^  Cf.  Hiihn,  loc.  cit.,  §  23,  and  notes. 

=^Ps.  22:28-32;  65:3,  6;  86:9;  ch.  87;  cf.  Huhn, 
loc.  cit.,  §  31 ;  Stade,  loc.  cit. 

CHAPTER  n 

*  See  Kuenen,  "  Religion  of  Israel,"  vol.  iii,  ch.  9. 

^Ten  institutions,  including  provisions  for  the 
periodic  reading  of  the  Torah  and  other  civil  and 
ritual  matters,  are  ascribed  by  the  Rabbis  (Baba 
Kama  82*)  to  Ezra;  cf.  M.  Bloch,  Sha'are  Torath 
ha-Takkanoth,  dW.  i,  pt.  i,  pp.  107-38  (Vienna,  1879). 

^Mal.  3:23,  24,  and  Rashi,  Ibn  Ezra,  and 
Kimchi  ad  loc;  cf.  M.  Friedmann's  Hebrew  Intro- 
duction to  his  edition  of  Seder  Eliyahu,  pp.  19-20. 
These  verses  in  Malachi  are  regarded  by  some  critics 
as  apocalyptic;  cf.  Ben  Sira,  48:10;  see  Hiihn,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  81;  C.  R.  Brown,  in  "Biblical  World,"  vol. 
XIV,  pp.  417-20;  cf.  Schiirer,  "History  of  the  Jews," 
etc.,  English  ed.,  div.  11,  vol.  11,  p.  156. 

*Cf.  Gray,  in  "Biblical  World,"  vol.  xiv,  pp.  410- 
II. 

'  Cf.  Charles,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  78-80,  126-37,  where  the 


3o8  NOTES  [pp.  59-63 


idea  suggested  here  is  hinted  at.  So  far  as  I  know, 
however,  the  connection  between  the  development  of 
the  belief  in  the  resurrection  and  the  emphasis  laid 
upon  law,  has  not  been  noticed  by  modern  scholars. 
Cf.  CastelH,  "  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  i,  pp. 
314-52,  especially  p.  327,  where  after  the  present 
book  was  in  type  I  found  a  similar  idea  expressed. 

""E.g.  Ps.  88:  11-13,  Job  14:  12,  Eccl.  7:  14. 

''  Cf.  Hiihn,  loc.  cit.,  p.  74,  §  29. 

*  Cf,  Ezek.,  ch.  37,  Hos.  6 :  2. 

°  Cf.  Hiihn,  loc.  cit.,  p.  26,  §  30;  Drummond, 
"  The  Jewish  Messiah,"  bk.  11,  ch.  xxiii,  pp.  360-61. 

^^  See  Driver's  commentary  on  these  passages  in 
the  Cambridge  Series  (1901),  and  Introduction  to 
same,  pp.  xc-xciii.  The  belief  in  resurrection  is  men- 
tioned also  in  11  Mace.  14 :  46 ;  7:9  et  scq. ;  12  :  43,  44 ; 
cf.  ib.  7 : 4,  where  resurrection  is  denied  to  gentiles ; 
cf.  Bertholet,  Die  israelitischen  V orstcllungcn  vom 
Zustand  nach  dem  Tode,  pp.  27-31  (Freiburg,  1899). 

"A  resume  of  this  literature  is  given  in  Schiirer's 
"  History  of  the  Jews,"  etc.,  div.  11,  vol.  iii;  in 
Driver's  Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Daniel,  in  the 
Cambridge  Series,  p.  Lxxvi  ct  scq.  A  pamphlet 
written  in  popular  style  was  recently  published,  en- 
titled Die  jiidische  Apokalyptik,  etc.,  by  D.  W.  Bous- 
set  (Berlin,  1903),  in  which  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  the  apocalyptic  literature  are  admirably 
summarized, 

"  Ben    Sira   50 :  24. 

''Ib.  36:3-10. 

'*  Ib.  vv.  13-14. 

''  lb.  37 :  25. 

"In  the  Psalm  of  Ben  Sira  (Heb.,  ed.  Levi,  Ley- 


pp.  63-69]  NOTES  309 


den,  1904,  cli.  51),  found  neither  in  the  Greek  nor  in 
the  Syriac  versions,  this  idea  is  expressed  very 
plainly :  "  Praise  ye  to  him  who  causeth  the  horn  of 
the  house  of  David  to  sprout."  Levi's  (p.  73,  note  g.) 
doubt  about  the  authenticity  of  this  psalm,  on  the 
ground  that  the  author  seems  to  oppose  the  Davidic 
dynasty  in  ch.  41  et  scq.  is  not  well-founded.  In 
those  chapters,  the  author  narrates  the  evil-doings  of 
the  early  kings  of  Judah,  but  he  may  still  believe  that 
the  future  ruler  of  Judah,  also  a  scion  of  the  house 
of  David,  will  be  good  and  righteous. 

"/&.  47:11,  22;  cf.  I  Mace.  2:57.  Ben  Sira,  in 
singing  the  praises  of  Elijah,  says  (48:11): 
"Blessed  are  they  who  saw  thee  and  slept  in  love; 
for  we  shall  surely  live."  This  passage  is  interpreted 
by  some  as  indicating  the  hope  of  Ben  Sira  to  witness 
the  coming  of  Elijah,  who  would  foretell  the  advent 
of  the  Messianic  kingdom.  In  the  recovered  Hebrew 
text,  this  stich  is  illegible,  except  the  last  two  letters ; 
see  Peters,  Ecclesiasticus,  p.  274  (Freiburg,  1902)  ; 
cf.  Drummond,  loc.  cit.,  bk.  11,  ch.  in ;  Levi,  "  Hebrew 
Text  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus,"  p.  67,  note  d 
(Leyden,  1904). 

'^Tobit  13:11-18;  cf.  Baruch  2:34,  35;  4:25-371 
ch.   5. 

'"Conder,  "Judas  Maccabeus,"  pp.  68-70  (London, 
1894)  ;  cf.  Drummond,  loc.  cit.,  p.  198. 

^  Enoch  79 :  59-64 ;  cf.  Baer's  note  ad.  loc,  in 
Kautzsch's  edition  of  Die  Apokryphcn  und  die  Pseud- 
epigraphen  des  Alt  en  Testaments,  vol.  11.,  p.  294 
(Tubingen,   1900). 

^'C/.  Jer.  3:  19;  Ezek.  20;  6,  15;  Dan.  8:9;  11:16, 

45- 
^'  Enoch  90 :  17-27. 


3IO  NOTES  [pp.  69-72 


""lb.  w.  28-30. 

'^Ib.v.ss;  cf.  ih.  51:1. 

""lb,   90:37-41. 

^^Levi,  ch.  18;  according  to  Charles,  in  Hastings, 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  s.  v.  Apocalyptic  Litera- 
ture; cf.  J.  Schnapp,  in  Introduction  to  this  book  in 
Kautzsch's  edition,  vol.  11,  p.  459,  where  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  author  was  a  Christian. 

"Lines  652-794. 

^  Holtzmann  in  Judenthum  und  Christenthum,  vol. 
II,  p.  199  et  seq.  (Leipzig,  1867),  believes  that  the 
reference  here  is  to  Simon,  the  Maccabean  high- 
priest.  Drummond  (loc.  cit,  pp.  274-5),  however, 
disproves  this  assertion  on  the  ground  that  Simon 
was  not  a  PaaiXevg^  the  title  having  purposely  been 
denied  to  him. 

^Line  720. 

'"  Lines  785-795- 

"^  Because  the  word  ndpij  is  used  in  connection  with 
this,  some  scholars  take  it  as  a  Christian  prophecy, 
supposing  that  the  i^^pv  in  whom  God  will  dwell 
refers  to  the  mother  of  the  Messiah.  This  assump- 
tion is  not  warranted;  cf.  Schurer,  "History,"  etc., 
div.  II,  vol.  II,  p.  140.  The  Hebrew  wordnSin^,  the 
exact  equivalent  of  the  Greek  n^pv,  is  frequently 
used  in  the  Bible  to  denote  a  city  or  a  province; 
cf.  II  Kings  19:21,  Is.  37:22,  Lam.  2:  13,  Is.  23:  12; 
47:1,  Jer.  46:11.  The  context  also  plainly  shows 
that  Jerusalem  is  meant  here. 

"^  In  63  B.  C.  E. 

^  Written  probably  between  70  and  40  B.  C.  E. ; 
see  R.  Kittel  in  Kautzsch,  loc.  cit.,  p.  127  ct  seq.; 
Schurer,  loc.  cit.,  div.  iii,  vol.  iii,  p.  17  et  seq.; 
Hiihn,  loc.  cit.,  §  36,  p.  91. 


pp.  72-78]  NOTES  311 


'*C/.  17:32  (Swete's  edition  of  Septuagint,  v.  z^, 
Xpiordc  Kvpcog  )  ;  comp.  superscription  of  chapter  17 
and  verses  5  and  7  (Swete  6,  8)  ;  cf.  Kittel's  note  on 
17:32;  Schurer,  loc.  cit,  div.  11,  vol.  11,  p.  i43,  and 
n.  9;  cf.  also  17:21  (Swete  23). 

""Chapters  37-70;  cf.  Schiirer,  loc.  cit.,  div.  11,  vol. 
Ill,  pp.  66-9. 

'°  See  Driimmond,  loc.  cit.,  bk.  11,  ch.  xi,  on  "  The 
Nature  of  the  Messiah";  cf.  Schurer,  loc.  cit.,  div. 
II,  vol.  II,  pp.  158-64. 

"  XpccTdgt    48 :  10 ;  52 :  4. 

■^40:5;  45:3,  4. 

"'38:2;  53:6. 

"62:7. 

"C/.  Charles,  "Eschatalogy,"  etc.,  pp.  213-19,  and 
notes. 

"  In  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

"  Psalms  of  Solomon  17  :  32. 

""On  Curses,"  sec   xi. 

*^ "  On  Rewards  and  Punishments,"  sec.  xv-xx. 

*"Matt.  3:2. 

*'' lb.  16:13-19;  cf.  John  4:26;  see  Holtzmann, 
Judcnthum  und  Christ  cut  hum,  vol.  11,  p.  373 ',  idem. 
Das  Mes Slash civusstsein  Jcsu  und  seine  neueste  Be- 
streitung  (Giessen,  1902). 

^'Matt.  16:20. 

''lb.  17:9-13. 

'^The  idea  of  a  "suffering  Messiah"  was  not 
common  among  the  Jews  of  that  time.  It  is  possible 
that  the  few  references  to  this  idea  found  in  the 
Talmud  are  of  later  Christian  origin ;  see  Drummond, 
loc.  cit.,  bk.  II,  ch.  xxii;  Dalman,  Dcr  Icidende  Mes- 
sias,  etc.,  (Karlsruhe,  1S87)  ;  cf.,  however,  Wiinsche, 
Die  Leiden  des  Messias  (Leipzig,  1870). 


312  NOTES  [pp.  80-87 


CHAPTER  III 

'"The  Talmud,"  pp.  24-5  (Philadelphia,  1895); 
cf.  Dembitz,  "Jewish  Services  in  Synagogue  and 
Home,"  p.   44  et  seq.    (Philadelphia,   1898). 

'^Cf.  Sanhedrin  67";  see  Bacher,  Agada  der  Tan- 
naiten,  vol.  i,  p.  217,  n.  I  (Strassburg,  1903). 

^  Compare  the  attitude  of  Rabbi  Meir  toward  Elisha 
ben  Abuyah  (Aher),  Hagigah  15",  ^ 

*Thus,  Hillel,  one  of  the  later  Amoraim,  was  but 
mildly  rebuked  by  Rabbi  Joseph,  when  he  dared 
declare  that  Israel  has  no  Messiah  any  more,  an 
utterance  which  would  have  appeared  nothing  less 
than  heresy  to  later  generations  {Sanhedrin  99^;  cf. 
Weiss,  Dor  Dor  we-Dorshaw,  vol.  i,  pp.  230-1). 

^  Cf.  Mendelssohn's  discussion  of  this  subject  in  his 
Jerusalem  {Gesammelte  Schriften,  vol.  iii,  sec.  2)  ; 
cf.  Schechter,  "  Studies  in  Judaism,"  p.  147  et  seq. 

"The  most  prominent  of  these  were  Theudas  and 
Simon  of  Cyprus;  see  Josephus,  "Antiquities,"  xx, 
8,  §  6 ;  Graetz,  Geschichte  der  Juden,  vol.  iii,  p.  16. 

^  In  1866.  The  quotations  here  are  taken  from 
the  German  translation  of  the  Syriac  version,  in 
Kautzsch's  edition  of  Apokryphen  und  Pseudepigra- 
phen  des  Alten  Testaments  (Tubingen,  1900).  The 
Book  of  Baruch  is  in  vol.  11,  pp.  402-57.  The  quota- 
tions from  the  Ezra  apocalypse  are  taken  from  i 
Esdras  in  the  usual  edition  of  the  Apocrypha. 

^  Esdras  7 :  39-43,  missing  In  the  English  version 
("The  Missing  Fragment").  "A  week  of  years" 
corresponds  to  the  week  of  creation.  See  the  de- 
scription of  the  Day  of  Judgment  in  the  Assumption 
of  Moses,  10:3-10;  cf.  Gunkel's  Introduction  to  the 
Book  of  Ezra  in  Kautzsch's  edition,  vol.  11,  pp.  331- 


pp.  S7-94I  NOTES  313 


52;  cf.  Schiefer,  Die  rcligioscn  und  cthischen 
Anschauungcn  dcs  IV  Ezrahuchcs  (Leipzig,  1901), 
especially  pp.  51-69.  In  one  place  (13:23-25),  Ezra 
seems  to  believe  that  the  Messianic  period  will  last 
only  forty  years. 
"  Baruch  30 :  i. 

""/&.  50;  51:  1-12;  cf.  I  Cor.  15:35-50. 
"  Sanhedrin  90^. 

"The  fact  that  Bar-Cochba,  although  not  repre- 
sented as  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  David,  at- 
tracted so  many  followers,  proves  the  intensity  of 
the  Messianic  hope  among  the  Jews  of  the  time 
when  Roman  persecution  assumed  its  most  cruel 
form.  Klausner,  in  his  monograph,  entitled  Die  Mes- 
sianischen  Vorstellungen  dcs  jiidischen  Volkes  im 
Zcitalter  der  Tannaitcn  (Cracow,  1903),  P-  5»  wishes 
to  derive  from  this  fact  a  corroboration  of  his 
theory,  that  the  Jews  of  that  period  hoped  for  a 
political  redeemer  and  not  for  a  Messiah  like  the  one 
pictured  by  the  prophets.  See  his  note  ad  loc. 
^^  Sanhedrin  99**. 

"  Y crush.  Ta'anith  iv,  5 ;  Lam.  Rabba  u,  5. 
"He  was  called  Bar-Coziba   ("the  son  of  lies''), 
Cant.  Rabba  11,  18;  comp.  Weiss,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  11,  pp. 
129-30. 
"  Cf.  Klausner,  loc.  cit.,  p.  3. 
"Berachoth  28'';  Aboth  R.  Nathan  xxv,  i;   Ye- 
rush.  Sotah  ix,  end;  see  Levy  yNeuhebr.  Worterbiich, 
vol.  II,  p.  362,  s.  V.   i^DD,  who  makes  this  saying  re- 
fer to  Gamaliel;  cf.  Klausner,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  4,  70,  and 
Friedmann  in  his  Introduction  to  Seder  Eliyahu,  p. 
21  (Vienna,  1902). 

"Dan.    12:1,  7,   10;   Matt.   24:15,  21;   Sybil,  iii. 


314  NOTES  [pp.  94-95 


line  795  ct  seq.;  Enoch  80:2-8;  91:6,  7;  99:4-9; 
Jubilees,  ch.  23,  et  al. 

''n^l^D  ^^^n;  Shahhath  ii8a;  cf.  Matt.  24:6-8;  see 
Dalman,  Der  leidende  Messias,  etc.,  p.  17  (Karls- 
ruhe, 1887)  ;  Wiinsche,  Die  Leiden  dcs  Messias 
(Leipzig,  1870),  Klausner,  loc.  cit.,  p.  47. 

^"Gen  Rabba  xlii  7,  Yalkut  Shime'oni,  Gen.  72; 
cf.  Mic.  7:6;  Matt.  10:35,  36. 

^^  Sanhedrin  98**. 

''/Z;.;  Shabbath  ii8\ 

""Kcthuboth  II2^ 

^  Sotah  49^  Sanhedrin  97%  Cawf.  T^a^ta  11,  29. 

^^  Sanhedrin  97*;  c/.  Derech  Erec  Zuta  x,  where 
Rabbi  Nehemiah,  Rabbi  Gamaliel,  and  Rabbi  Simeon 
ben  Johai  express  similar  views. 

^  Rabbi  Johanan,  Rabbah,  in  Sanhedrin  97". 

^  lb.  98";  r/.  Drummond,  loe.  cit,  bk.  11,  ch.  5. 

^  C/.  Ezek.  chs.  38-9 ;  Yalkut  on  Is.,  452 ;  Targum 
to  Ps.  2:2;  and  to  Is.  11:4,  mentions  a  monster  by 
the  name  of  Annilus,  who  will  wage  war  against 
Israel;  see  "The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.;  see 
below,  p.  320;  also  pp.  124,  169. 

^  '  Eduyoth  11,  10. 

^  Targum  to  Lam.  4 :  22,  Targum  Jonathan  to 
Gen.  49:  11;  to  Num.  24,  17-20,  24;  see  Drummond, 
loc.  cit.,  ch.  12;  cf.  Koran,  21:96  et  seq.;  also  vv. 
104  et  seq.  about  the  Day  of  Judgment. 

^^Cf.  Seder  Eliyahu  Rabba,  ed.  Friedmann,  ch. 
XVIII,  p.  97,  and  Introduction,  p.  11,  where  the  Mes- 
siah son  of  Joseph  is  identified  with  the  child  that 
was  restored  to  life  by  Elijah  (i  Kings  17:  17-24)  ; 
Messiah  son  of  Ephraim  is  mentioned  in  Targum 
to  Cant.  4:  5,  and  Targum  Jonathan  to  Exod.  40:  11; 
Messiah  son  of  Manasseh  in  Num.  Rabba  xiv,  2. 


pp.  95-96]  NOTES  315 


^^Sukkah  52";  cf.  Y crush.  Siikkah  v,  2;  Pesikta 
Rabbati,  ch.  36,  ed.  Friedmann  (Vienna,  1880),  p. 
161";  cf.  Pesikta  Ziitarta  on  Balak,  pp.  258-9  (Vilna, 
1880)  ;  Jellinek,  Beth  Hamidrash,  vol.  iii,  pp.  141-3; 
cf.  Klaiisner,  loc.  cit.,  ch.  ix. 

^""Menahoth  45";  Baba  Mezi'a  3%  et  al;  cf.  Mishnah 
Shekalim  11,  5;  Aboth  R.  Nathan  xxxiv,  4. 

^'Eduyoth  viii,  7;  Kiddushin  71a. 

"'C/.  Friedmann's  Introduction  to  Seder  Eliyahu 
Rabba,  pp.  22-5;  "The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v., 
Elijah,  quoting  Yalkut  Hadash,  ed.  Radawil,  sS"*; 
cf.  Drummond,  loc.  cit.,  ch.  vi;  Klausner,  loc.  cit., 
ch.  VI. 

'"  (a)  He  will  bring  before  the  Israelites  Moses  and 
the  generation  of  the  wilderness;  (b)  he  will  revive 
Korah  and  his  followers;  (c)  he  will  revive  the 
Messiah  son  of  Joseph  {cf.  Jellinek,  loc.  cit.,  vol. 
Ill,  p.  72)  ;  (d)  he  will  restore  the  three  mysteriously 
lost  objects  of  the  sacred  utensils  of  the  Temple, 
viz. :  the  ark,  the  vessel  of  Manna,  and  the  vessel  of 
sacred  oil;  (e)  he  will  display  the  sceptre  given  to 
him  by  God;  (f)  he  will  crush  mountains  like  straw; 
(g)  he  will  reveal  the  great  mystery  (Jellinek,  loc. 
cit.;  cf.  Seder  Eliyahu  Rabba,  p.  129;  Tosefta  Sotah 
XIII,  1-3 ;  cf.  Malkuyyoth  service  for  Rosh  ha-Shanah, 
s.  v.,  Ansichah).  At  the  first  blast  of  his  trumpet 
the  primitive  light  will  appear,  at  the  second  blast, 
the  dead  will  rise  (Yenish.  Shabbath  i,  3;  Mishnah 
Sotah,  end;  Yerush.  Shekalim  iii,  3;  cf.,  however, 
'Abodah  Zarah  20^^;  Yalkut  on  Is.  363;  Alfasi  on 
'Abodah  Zarah  and  Rabbi  Nissim  ad  loc,  Tosefoth 
Yam  Tab  on  end  of  Sotah;  see  Agadath  Shir  Ha- 
shirim  (ed.  Schechter,  Cambridge,  1896)  p.  44  and  note 


3l6  NOTES  [p.  96 


to  lines  1297-1303 ;  and  at  the  third  blast  the  Divine 
Majesty  will  appear  (Jellinek,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  v,  p.  128). 
He  will  make  his  appearance  three  days  before  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  ('Erubin  43^)  ;  he  will  not 
come  on  a  Friday  or  on  the  eve  of  a  festival,  in 
order  not  to  interrupt  the  preparations  for  the  Sab- 
bath or  the  festival;  cf.  PesahUn  13";  cf.,  however, 
Seder  *Olam  Rahha,  ed.  Ratner  (Wilna,  1897),  ch. 
xvii,  where  it  appears  that  Elijah  will  come  after 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah;  see  n.  13  ad  loc).  On 
the  first  day  of  his  arrival,  he  will  lament  over  the 
devastation  of  Palestine,  and  will  conclude  his  lamen- 
tations with  the  words,  "  Peace  will  now  come  over 
the  earth."  On  the  second  day,  he  will  go  up  on 
the  mountains  of  Israel  and  say,  "Good  hath  come 
to  the  world."  On  the  third  day,  he  will  say,  "  Sal- 
vation hath  come  to  the  world."  Then  the  archangel 
Michael  will  blow  the  trumpet,  and  Elijah  and  the 
Messiah  will  make  their  appearance  (Pesikta  Rah- 
bati  XXXV,  p.  161";  Yalkut  on  Is.,  475;  Jellinek, 
loc.  cit.,  vol.  II,  pp.  62,  125). 

^''  Pirke  R.  Elieser  xliii,  end,  xlvii. 

^Gen.  Rahha  lxxxv,  2;  his  mother  will  be  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  {Yalkut,  vol.  i,  160),  and  his  birthplace 
will  be  the  city  of  Bethlehem  {¥ crush.  Berachoth 
II,  4;  Lam.  Rahha  i,  57;  Tar  gum  on  Mic.  5:1). 
-His  name  was  created  in  the  mind  of  God  before 
.  He  created  the  world  {Gen.  Rahha  i,  5;  cf.  Pesahim 
-54";  Nedarim  39").  He  is  called  "Ben  David" 
{Sanhedrm  97*  et  al.)y  "David"  {¥ crush.  Bera- 
choth II,  4;  Sanhedrin  98'';  Lam.  Rahha  i,  57), 
"Menahem  son  of  Hezekiah"  {Sanhedrin  98''), 
"  Zemah  "  {Lam.  Rahha  I,  57 ;  Zemah  and  Menahem 
are  there  identified,  both  having  the  same  numerical 


pp.  96-100]  NOTES  317 


value,  viz.,  138),  "Shalom**  (Derech  Eves  Zuta  xi, 
after  Is.,  9:5),  or  "Hadrak"  {Sifri  to  Deut.  1:1, 
after  Zech.,  9:1;  Cant.  Rabba  vii,  10).  Many  other 
names  are  given  to  the  Messiah  in  the  Targumim, 
Talmudim,  and  Midrashim;  see  Drummond,  loc.  cit, 
ch.  X ;  Klausner,  loc.  ciL,  ch.  VIL 

^^  Cf.,  however,  Derech  Eres  Zuta  i,  end;  see  also 
Yerush.   Berachoth  11,  4;  Lam.  Rabba  1,  57. 

'"Hagigah  14";  Sanhedrin  38". 

^Yerush.  Ta'anith  11,  I  end;  cf.  Exod.  Rabba 
XXIX,  4;  cf.  Backer,  Agada  der  Paldstinensischen 
Amorder,  vol.  11,  p.  118  (Strassburg,  1896). 

"  Sanhedrin  98** ;  Targum  Jonathan  on  Gen.  35 :  21 ; 
on  Exod.  13 :  42 ;  cf.  Drummond,  loc.  cif.,  ch.  ix,  end ; 
Bachcr,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  i,  pp.  146,  IQO- 

*'  Yalkut,  vol.  II,  988,  end. 

*^ Sanhedrin  no";  cf.  Musaf  for  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  s.  v.  Ofcl  Almanah. 

*'"  Sanhedrin  III^ 

^'Berachoth  34^  'Ernbin  43". 

*^  Sanhedrin  g(f. 

^^Pesahim  118**;  Gen.  Rabba  lxxviii,  16. 

'"'Abodah  Zarah  3^ 

^""Ib.,  Cant  Rabba  11,  4;  Yalkut  on  Is.,  452. 

"  Exod.  Rabba  xxx,  1. 

°^  nn  =  sharp,  severe ;  "J"!  =  soft,  mild ;  Cant.  Rab- 
ba VII,  10;  Sifri  on  Deut.  i :  i. 

^Ca/if.  Rabba  vu,  10;  Sifri  on  Deut.  1:1;  Baba 
Bat  lira  76". 

"  Yalkut,  vol.  I,  159- 

"  Yoma  5^ 

'"1.(77;.  i?a&Z?a  ix,  7. 

"  Ffl/fcMf  on  Is.,  429. 

'^^Cf.  Rabbi  Joseph  in  Niddah  61";  see  Fa^/  Ma/a- 


3l8  NOTES  [pp.  101-106 


chi,  vol.  I,  p.  75\  No.  437  (Berlin,  1847);  cf.  Weiss, 
Dor,  etc.,  vol.  i,  p.  229  and  note;  Hamburger,  Rcal- 
Encyclopadie,  vol.  11,  p.  747,  n.  12. 

''^  Berachoth  I5^  Sanhcdrin  92';  cf.  Aboth  iv,  22. 

^  Gen.  Rahba  xiii,  4. 

^Kethuboth  iii^ 

^^  Kiddushin  39^ 

^  Mishnah  Sanhcdrin  x,  i. 

^  Kethuboth  iii^,  Y crush.  Kilayim  ix,  3. 

''^Yalkut  on  Is.,  428.  Mention  is  made  of  dew, 
with  which  God  will  perform  the  miracle  of  resur- 
rection (Hagigah  12",  Shabbath  88";  cf.  Lev.  Rabba 
XIV,  8,  and  Musaf  for  the  first  day  of  Passover). 

•^  Baba  Bathra  74^ 

^"^  Lev.  Rabba  xxii,  7. 

"^  Bcrachoth  34'',  Sanhcdrin  g(f ;  c/.  Hagigah  I2^ 

^^  Lev.  Rabba  xiii,  3. 

""^  Shabbath  30^;  c/.  Kethiiboth  iii%  where  still 
greater  exaggerations  are  recorded. 

''^  Sanhcdrin  97''. 

"/&.  97^  see  Rabbi  Elijah  Wilna's  note  a(/  '/oc. 

''^'Abodah  Zarah  9";  c/.  Tosafoth  s.  v.  Leahar, 
ad  loc. 

"  Sanhcdrin  97". 

""^  Kethuboth  iii%  see  Rashi  at/  /oc;  c/.  Dercch 
Erez  Zuta  xi. 

""  Pesahim  56%  54^ 

^^  Sanhcdrin  97". 

''  Foma  86%  Fa/^w^  on  Is.,  498. 

'"Shabbath  ii8b 

^^L^zr.  Rabba  iii,  i;  c/.  Weber,  System  der  alt- 
synagogalen  Paldstinensischcn  Theologic,  p.  322 
(Leipzig,  1880). 


pp.  106-121]  NOTES  319 


^^  Rosh  Hashanah  11*. 

^'  Cf.  Num.  Rabba  xi,  3 ;  Jellinek,  loc.  cif.,  vol.  iii, 
p.  154.  The  duration  of  the  Messianic  reign  is 
limited  according  to  the  Haggadah  and  is  variously- 
given  as  three  generations  (Mechilta  to  Exod.  17:  16, 
based  on  Ps.  72 : 5,  in  =  one  generation  and  D"*"!!! 
=  two  generations),  forty,  seventy,  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five,  four  hundred,  one  thousand,  two  thou- 
sand, four  thousand,  or  seven  thousand  years  (Sati^ 
hcdrin  97^  99",  Pesikta  Rabbati  1,  end,  p.  4","). 

"Graetz,  Geschichte  dcr  Jtiden,  3d  ed,,  vol.  iv,  p. 
345,  and  n.  34. 

^  Cf.,  however,  Bacher,  Agada  der  Paldst.  Amordcr, 
vol.  Ill,  pp.  III-13,  and  notes. 

"  Socrates,  Historia  Ecclcsiastica,  vol.  vii,  p.  36 
(Bohn's  ed.). 

^''  Sanhedrin  97^ 

^^*^  CHAPTER  IV 

*  Graetz,  Geschichte  der  Juden,  vol.  v,  p.  152,  and 
n.  14;  cf.  Pinsker,  Likkute  Kadmoniyoth,  pp.  12-16 
(Vienna,  i860). 

^  See  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  n.  14. 

^  Ps.  119:  164,  "  Seven  times  a  day  do  I  praise  Thee, 
because  of  Thy  righteous  judgment." 

*Maimonides,  Iggereth  Teman,  p.  50  (ed.  Hallub, 
Vienna,    1875). 

"*  Graetz,  loc.  ciL,  n.  15,  suggests  that  Abu-Isa 
declared  himself  the  Messiah  son  of  Joseph,  and 
not  the  Messiah  son  of  David,  because  it  was  known 
that  he  was  not  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the  family  of 
the  expected  Messiah.  Abu-Isa,  therefore,  resolved 
to  gain   Palestine  for  the  Jews  by  force  of  arms, 


320  NOTES  [pp.  121-133 


since  it  was  supposed  to  be  the  province  of  the  Mes- 
siah son  of  Joseph  to  conquer  Israel's  enemies  in 
war. 

°  Cf.  Pinsker,  loc.  cit.,  p.   10. 

'^Nnr  ]3  pjrr^tS'  'm  nnno J,  pubHshed  in  Jelllnek's 
Beth  Hamidrash,  vol.  iii,  pp.  78-82;  cf.  Graetz,  loc. 
cit.,  n.  15;  "The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.  Apo- 
calyptic Literature,  No.   10. 

*  See  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  412,  n.  I ;  "  The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia,"  vol.  11,  s.  v.  Armilus,  where  the  legend 
of  Armilus  having  been  born  of  Satan  and  the 
marble  statue  of  a  woman  in  Rome,  is  given  in  full; 
cf.  also  Guttmann,  Religionsphilosophic  dcs  Saadia, 
p.  236,  n.  4  (Gottingen,  1882). 

^  See  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  190,  and  n.  18 ;  Pinsker, 
loc.  cit.,  pp.  10,  25-26. 

"  Cf.  Friedlaender,  Die  Messiasidee  im  Islam 
(Berlin,  1903). 

"  Deut.  30  :  3. 

"This  argument  against  Christianity  was  used 
much  earlier  by  the  Jews  of  Spain  (672),  who  based 
their  views  especially  on  the  tradition  that  the  Mes- 
siah would  appear  in  the  seventh  millennium.  This 
mode  of  reasoning  seems  to  have  caused  much  an- 
noyance to  the  early  Christian  theologians,  so  that 
Julian  of  Toledo,  in  his  apologetic  work.  Contra 
Judaeos,  endeavors  to  refute  it;  see  Graetz,  loc.  cit., 
p.  133,  n.  2. 

"  Cf.  Guttmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  226,  n.  4. 

"  Ih.  ch.  7 ;  cf.  Spiegler,  Geschichte  der  Philosophie 
des  Judcnthums,  p.  240;  Bernfeld,  Da'ath  Elohim, 
p.  125;  idem,  Sa'adia  Gaon,  pp.  13-14- 

"C/.  Guttmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  239;  Bernfeld,  Da'ath 
Elohim,  p.  125,  n.  i ;  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  275,  n.  i. 


pp.  133-140]  NOTES  321 


"  See  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  125,  n.  i,  quoting  the 
Letters  of  Maimonides  (ed.  Leipzig),  11,  5";  Graetz, 
loc.  cit,  vol.  VI,  p.  280, 

"  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  84. 

"  See  Guttmann,  loc.  cit,  p.  215  et  seq. 

"  Ta'am  Zekenim,  pp.  59-61  (ed.  Ashkenazi, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1854)  ;  cf.  Dalman,  Dcr 
Icidcnde  Messias,  etc.,  p.  58. 

"'^ Hegion  Hanefesh,  p.  42*,''  (Leipzig,  i860).  He 
believed  that  the  Messiah  would  come  in  1358  (5 118 
A.  M.)  ;  see  Feinman's  Introduction  to  the  Hegion 
Hanefesh,  p.  xv,  n.  11;  cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit,  p.  loi. 

^^  Published  in  Jellinek's  Beth  Hamidrash,  vol.  11, 
PP-  54-57;  cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  53-55;  "  The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia,"  vol.  i,  pp.  682-3. 

T/.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  53,  "•  4  (1068?). 

^'  The  references  here  are  to  Harkavy's  edition  of 
Halevi's  Poems  (Warsaw,  1893). 

-  Pt.  I,  pp.  57-8. 

^^ lb.  p.  60;  cf.  Luzzatto's  notes  2  and  3  ad.  loc; 
pt.  II,  p.  13  and  n.  i ;  Halevi  expected  the  redemption 
to  come  during  the  first  millennium  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple. 

'"  Pt.  I,  p.  69 ;  pt.  II,  p.  13. 

""'  Pt.  I,  pp.  69,  71. 

^^  Pt.  I,  p.  74,  and  n.  4 ;  pt.  11,  pp.  12-27. 

^  Pt.  I,  p.  72. 

"^  Kusari,  pt.  11,  36-44,  pp.  143-7,  in  Cassel's  ed. 
(Leipzig,  1869). 

^*  Is.  53 :  4 ;  cf.  Cassel's  n.  3  to  p.  142 ;  cf.  Wiinsche, 
Die  Leiden  des  Messias,  pp.  34-50;  Dalman,  Dcr 
leidende  Messias,  etc.,  passim. 

^^ Ku.zari,  pt.  iv,  23;  see  Cassel's  n.  3  ad  loc.;  cf. 
ib.  pt.  II,  34. 


322  NOTES  [pp.  140-167 


''lb.  pt  I,  115. 

^  Poems,  pt.  I,  p.  18;  pt.  II,  p.  33. 

^Cf.  Friedlaender,  "The  Jewish  Religion,"  p.  232 
(London,    1900). 

^  Massa'oth  Rabbi  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  p.  12" 
(Lemberg,  1859)  ;  cf.  Graetz,  loc.  ciL,  vol.  vi,  pp. 
244-8;  "The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.  Alroy; 
Iggerotli  Harambam,  p.  15  (Warsaw,  1878). 

''' "  Studies  in  Judaism,"  p.   164. 

^  Yad  Hahazakah,  Hilchoth  Me  lac  him,  chs.  xi,  xii. 

'"lb.  Hilchoth  Teshiibah,  ch.  ix,  2. 

'"  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  281. 

"  Of  Alexandria,  Iggcroth  Harambam,  p.  9. 

^^  D^nnn   n^nn;    Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  289,  305; 

cf.  Bernfeld,  Da'ath  Elohim,  p.  297 ;  Yellin  and  Abra- 
hams, "  Maimonides,"  p.  194  (Philadelphia,  1903)- 

*'Cf.  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  475;  "The  Jewish  En- 
cyclopedia," s.  V.  Crescas. 

**  Sanhedrin  93*. 

*^'Hikarim,  pt.  iv,  35;  cf.  pt.  i,  23.  Neither  Albo 
nor  his  teacher,  Hasdai,  included  the  belief  in  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  among  the  cardinal  principles 
of  Judaism;  cf.  'Ikkarim,  pt.  iv,  42;  pt.  i,  23. 


CHAPTER  V 
^  Quoted   from   Schechter's   "  Studies   in  Judaism," 

p.    105. 

^  See  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  vii,  pp.  120-3,  and  n.  2. 

'  HD'Dn  'n  n"lin,  ed.  Jellinek  (Vienna,  1872). 

* "  For    one    hundred    and    eighteen    years    in    the 
sixth  millennium  we  shall  still  be  in  the  hands  of 


pp.  167-173]  NOTES  323 

the  nations  of  the  world,"  ib.  p.  29,  Nahmanides 
obviously  expected  the  Messiah  to  come  in  1358 
(5118  A.  M.). 

^  Ib.  p.  27;  cf.  Nahmanides  commentary  to  Gen. 
2:3. 

°  Cf.  Nahmanides'  commentary  to  Exod.  17 : 9. 

''  Cf.  Schechter,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  1 15-16. 

^  Published  in  Jellinek's  Beth  Hamidrash,  vol.  iv, 
pp.  117-26;  see  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  vii,  p.  127  and 
n.  7;  see,  however,  Buttenwieser,  in  "The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia,"  vol.  i,  p.  684,  who  assumes  that  this 
apocalypse  was  composed  during  the  Crusades. 

'n-iy;rD  n^Dp,  which  was  supposed  to  endow  one 
with  the  power  of  performing  miracles. 

"C/.  Jellinek's  Introduction  to  nS^pH  nDDH  ^m, 
pp.  16-26  (Leipzig,  1853)  ;  idem,  Introduction  to  vol. 
Ill,  of  his  Beth  Hamidrash,  p.  xli;  idem,  Introduc- 
tion to  his  Philosophic  und  Kabbalah,  pt.  i,  pp.  v- 
XII  (Leipzig,  1854)  ;  idem,  Sefer  ha-Oth,  in  Graetz's 
Jubelschrift,  Hebrew  section,  pp.  65-88  (Breslau, 
1887)  ;  cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  191-5. 

"  See  Perles,  Rabbi  Salome  hen  Adereth,  pp.  6,  63, 
n.  22  (Breslau,  1863). 

"/&.  p.  64,  n.  24. 

*^Lit.  "splendor"  (after  Dan.  12:3),  a  mystical 
commentary  to  the  Pentateuch,  supposed  to  have 
been  communicated  by  the  Tanna  Rabbi  Simeon 
ben  Johai  to  his  disciples.  Many  later  additions, 
as  the  Midrosh  Hane'elam  ("the  hidden  Midrash"), 
the  Ra'aya  Mchemna  ("the  faithful  shepherd"), 
and  others,  are  included  under  the  general  name  of 
Zohar. 

"  This   is   a   moot   question ;    see    Graetz,    loc.    cit., 


324  NOTES  [pp.  173-182 


n.  12 ;  GInzberg,  "  The  Kabbalah "  (London,  1865)  ; 
JelHnek,  Introduction  to  H^^pH  nDDH  7JJI,  pp.  25-6. 

^^Zohar  (Amsterdam,  1788),  vol.  i,  p.  25'';  cf. 
Graetz,  loc.  cit.  p.  436. 

^'^  Zohar,  vol.  i,  p.  117";  every  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  has  its  numerical  value,  the  Hcz=s,  the 
Wazu^=6,  and  the  Yod=  10.  Thus,  by  an  arbitrary 
arrangement  of  the  letters,  the  author  of  the  pas- 
sage in  the  Zohar  calculates,  that  the  Messianic 
period  will  commence  in  the  year  1300  (5060  A.  M.), 
and  will  reach  its  highest  culmination  in  the  year 
1840  (5600  A.  M.).  It  is  apparent  that  the  author  or 
the  compiler  expected  the  beginning  of  the  Messianic 
era  in  his  own  lifetime. 

"  Ra'aya  Mchemna,  vol.  iii,  p.  252". 

"  Midrash  Hane'elam,  vol.  1,  p.  139"- 

''msv  ip. 

"^  Zohar,  vol.  11,  p.  7"- 
""^Ib.  vol.  I,  p.  II9^ 
""^  Ih.  vol.  Ill,  p.  2I2^ 
"^Ib.  vol.  II,  p.  212";  cf.  vol.  Ill,  p.  218'. 
''  j^;r"lD  "331  kSd'H  ;  cf.  Myer,  "  Qabbalah  and  the 
Philosophy    of    Avicebron,"    p.    338     (Philadelphia, 


^'  See  Wunsche,  Die  Leiden  des  Mcssias,  pp.  88, 
95-103;  cf.  Piyyut  for  Musaf  Kedushah  for  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  s.  v.  An,  iii. 

^Midrash  Hane'elam,  vol.   i,  p.    102*. 

'''' Cf.  Zohar,  vol.  iii,  p.  203^ 

^/&.;  nxnn  n;;^:. 

"nSlXjn  niJN,  quoted  in  Albo's  'Ikkarim,  pt.  iv, 
42. 

^Albo,   loc.    cit..  pt.   I,   2,  23. 


pp.  183-190]  NOTES  325 


"/&.  pt.  IV,  42. 

^'C/.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  viii,  pp.  115-18,  177,  and 
n.  3. 

''Cf.  Ketlmhoth  II2^ 

"Cf.  Sanhcdrin  97". 

"'  A  play  on  the  expression  e]U3t5^  niDiy3  iSd^I^  1;^. 
Yebamoth  62*.  In  this  expression,  c]U,  ordinarily 
meaning  body,  is  interpreted  to  refer  to  a  special 
depository  v^here  the  souls  are  kept ;  cf.  Rashi  ad  loc, 
s.  V.  fjU,  'Ahodah  Zarah  5%  TosafotJi  s.  v.  )'K  ;  see 
below  p.  328. 

'"'Cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  vii,  p.  372,  n.,  vol.  viii, 
p.  16. 

"Cf.  Monatsschrift  fiir  Geschichte  und  Wissen- 
schaft  des  Judenthums,  vol.  28  (1879),  pp.  78-83; 
Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  viii,  pp.  97-9,  and  n.  2. 

''Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  vii,  p.  361. 

^"njrity^n  ^rjrn  ,nvw  j^^Dtro  ,in^tyD  n)}?w\ 

*"  Compare  his  views  on  the  Haggadah  {nD)]}W^ 
in-tyD  ,  p.  17*,  and  on  the  character  of  the  prophet 
Elijah  in  the  Talmud,  ib.  p.  22^ 

"njnK  lyKI,  chapters  xiv  and  xxiii  (Konigsberg, 
1861),  in'tyrD  n}VW  (ibidem,  1861),  p.  27^Dnp;r^  -)3D 
Dnplj;;!  IX,  the  book  '  Ikkarim  [principles]  or  rather 
'  Okarim  [uprootings]. 

^^in^i^D  ni;?ity%  p.  25^  ct  seq. 

"nnty^n  ^rUD,  pp.  6^  7"  (Stettin,  i860). 
^*  Ib.  ch.  X  f^  a/.;in'K^Dmnty%  p.  13"  et  al,  and  in 
other  parts   of  his  works. 

"in't^D  nii;m%  p.  31'. 

*°  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ix,  p.  215,  and  n.  3;  cf. 
Seder  Hadoroth  (ed.  Maskileison,  Warsaw,  1897), 
pt.  I,  p.  238,  where  the  author  relates  that  his  grand- 


326  NOTES  [pp.  190-207 


father,  Seligmann  Ganz,  who  lived  at  that  time,  tore 
up  the  oven  that  was  used  for  baking  Mazzoth, 
firmly  believing  that  the  end  of  the  Galuth  had  come, 
and  he  would  not  need  the  oven  for  next  year,  since 
he  would  then  be  in  Jerusalem.  Eliezer  Treves, 
the  Rabbi  of  Frankfort,  a  teacher  of  the  author  of 
the  Seder  Hadoroth,  also  believed  in  Lammlein's 
Messiahship,  and  said  it  was  probably  due  to  the 
sins  of  Israel  that  the  Messiah  had  not  come  at  that 
time. 

"  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  adventures  of  these 
two  pseudo-Messiahs,  see  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ix, 
ch.  VIII,  and  n.  5;  Seder  Hadoroth,  pt.  i,  p.  240. 

*^  See  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ix,  p.  547,  quoting  from 
Luzzatto's  Maskir,  v,  45,  for  some  ingenious  com- 
binations of  Hebrew  letters  to  indicate  the  near 
approach  of  the  Messianic  period,  which  were  com- 
posed by  a  contemporary  (Joseph  of  Arli).  In 
connection  with  this,  I  may  mention  a  specimen  of 
such  entertainments,  which  I  heard  among  the  chil- 
dren, while  at  Heder.  The  first  word  of  the  Bible, 
P'tJ^K-iD,  was  read  by  them  "IIJDdSx  ,K'Dn  nSsDIJ 
'3tyn  K3^  /lySiy,  i.  e.,  at  the  fall  of  Russia,  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Third,  the  Tishbite  (Elijah) 
will  make  his  appearance. 


CHAPTER  VI 

^  Polemische  Deutsche  Schriften  (ed.  Irmischer, 
Erlangen,  1841),  vol.  in,  ch.  28,  p.  46  et  seq.;  cf. 
Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ix,  p.  197. 

^For  the  life  of  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  see  Kayser- 


pp.  207-215]  NOTES  327 


ling.  Manassch  hen  Israel,  etc.,  in  Jahrhuch  fiir  die 
Geschichte  der  Juden,  vol.  iii,  pp.  83-189  (Leipzig, 
1861)  ;  English  translation  by  F.  de  Sola  Mendcs 
(London,  1877)  ;  Graetz,  loc.  eit.,  vol.  x,  ch.  4. 

^  Midrash  Hane'elam,  vol.  i,  p.  139^. 

*bxnty^  mpD,  ch.  XII  et  scq.  (Warsaw,  1841)  ; 
see  the  Introduction  (31  ntyyo),  where  an  account 
of  Montezino's  travels  is  given. 

"^Dedicated  to  his  friend,  David  Vossius. 

'  See  Kayserling,  loc.  cit.,  p.  144  and  n.  174 ;  Eng. 
ed.,  p.  38. 

^  Alanasseh's  idea  of  the  resurrection  is  given  in 
his  book,  De  Resurrectione  Mortuorum,  3  parts 
(Amsterdam,  1636),  and  in  his  D'TI  J^DB'J,  pt.  i, 
chs.  xv-xvii,  pp.  24d-3o<i  (Leipzig,  1862). 

*  Accounts  of  the  interesting  exploits  of  Sabbatai 
Zebi  and  of  his  followers  can  be  found  in  any  good 
Jewish  history.  Only  their  Messianic  teachings  and 
the  chief  events  in  their  careers  are  included  here. 

"  Yoma  69^  cf.  Sotah  38". 

"  Rabbi  Hai  Gaon  in  Ta'ani  Zekenim,  p.  57a,  b ; 
cf.  Maimonides  Yad  Hahazakah,  Hilchoth  Te  fill  ah, 
XIV,  9 ;  cf.  "  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.  Shem 
ha-Meforash. 

^^  By  the  high  priest  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  arid 
by  the  priests  in  pronouncing  the  blessing  for  tiie 
community   (D'^HD    HDm). 

"  Cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  vol,  x,  pp.  189-190.  There 
was  a  belief  among  the  medieval  Jews  that  a  proper 


328  NOTES  [pp.  215-238 


combination  of  the  letters  of  the  name  of  God  enabled 
one  to  perform  miracles  {cf.  Gittin  68").  In  the 
biographies  of  Jesus  written  by  Jews  of  that  period, 
much  prominence  is  given  to  the  fact,  that  Jesus 
performed  miracles,  because  he  had  learned  the 
correct  combination  of  the  letters  of  the  Tetragram- 
maton,  which  he  had  found  inscribed  on  a  stone  on 
the  Temple  mount;  see  Gershom  Bader,  Helkath 
Mehokek,  p.  10  and  n.  5. 

"See  David  Kahana  in  Hashiloah,  vol.  11,  pp.  326- 
334. 

"Cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  188-9,  436-41. 

*^  See  above  p.  162. 

"oyS  nn  none  "My  beloved  is  like  a  roe,"  Cant. 
2 : 9)  was  applied  to  Sabbatai  by  his  followers  thus, 
"My  beloved  (God)  equals  Zebi  (Heb.  for  *roe')." 

^For  a  list  of  Sabbatian  festivals,  see  David 
Kahana  in  Hashiloah,  vol.  v,  p.  55. 

^^Yebamoth  62%  6f\  R^^shi  s.  v.  f]U  ;  'Abodah 
Zarah  5%  Tosafoth  s.  v.  r«;  Niddah  I3^  Tosafoth 
s.  V,  "^V,  and  Maharsha  ad  loc,  s.  v.  T^ 

"^  Cf.  Graetz,  loc.  cit.,  p.  443. 

^^  Cf.  ib.,  p.  440. 

**  Graetz,  Frank  und  die  Frankisten,  pp.  35-6 
(Breslau,  1868). 

''Ib.  p.  36,  n.  I. 

^^  Ib.  p.  48;  cf.  Krochmal,  March  Nebuche  ha-Ze- 
man,  p.  255  (Warsaw,  1894),  where  a  comparison 
is  drawn  between  these  sects  and  the  sects  in  the 
early  history  of  Christianity. 

^  Schechter,  "Studies  In  Judaism,"  p.  17;  cf.  Dub- 
now,  in  "  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.  Hasidim. 


pp.  244-255]  NOTES  329 


CHAPTER  VII 

*  Baba  Bathra  3^ 

^  Bernfeld,  Toledoth  Hareformation  Hadathith 
B'Israel,  p.  66  (Cracow,  1900). 

^  Ritter,  Geschichte  der  jiidischen  Reformation,  pt. 
II,  p.  41  (Berlin,  1861)  ;  Schreiber,  "Reformed  Juda- 
ism and  its  Pioneers,"  p.  37  (Spokane,  1892). 

*  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  66. 

'/&.  p.  67)  cf.  Schreiber,  loc.  cit,  p.  38. 

'For  the  changes  introduced  in  the  first  three 
reform  prayer-books,  see  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  Appen- 
dix, pp.  240-53. 

'  Abraham  Geiger's  Nachgclassene  Schriften,  vol. 
V,  pp.  54-56  (Berlin,  1878),  Hebrew  translation  given 
by  Rabinowitz  in  his  biography  of  Leopold  Zunz, 
pp.  156-7  (Warsaw,  1896). 

*  Translated  into  English  by  Bernard  Drachman 
(New  York,  1899).  The  quotations  here  are  from 
the  English  translation. 

lb.  pp.  161-3 ;  cf.  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  125-8,  who 
criticises  Hirsch's  standpoint  rather  too  severely. 

"  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  I37,  and  note. 

"Zunz,  Gesammelte  Schriften,  vol.  11,  p.  202;  cf. 
Rabinowitz  "Leopold  Zunz"  (Hebrew),  pp.  186-9, 
who  gives  an  excellent  analysis  of  Zunz's  idea  of 
Jewish  nationality  as  shown  by  his  article  on  Cir- 
cumcision. 

"^1842,   Nos.   7-9. 

"Cf.  Rabinowitz,  "Zachariah  Frankel"  (Hebrew), 
pp.  76-81  (Warsaw,  1898);  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  pp. 
141-3. 


330  NOTES  [pp.  256-263 


"C/.  Schreiber,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  132-46;  Bernfeld,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  148  and  note,  where  a  list  of  the  controversial 
literature  on  this  subject  is  given. 

^'^  Nachgelasscnc  Schriften,  pt.  i,  pp.  113-97;  <^f- 
Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  144-8. 

^'^  Orient,  1842,  Nos.  23,  25;  cf.  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit., 
pp.    167-8. 

^"'Autonomic  dcr  Rahhinen,  p.  21,  n.  11  (Schwerin, 
1843). 

^^  Cf.  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  169. 

"76.  pp.  151-61;  Schreiber,  loc.  cit.,  p.  207,  says 
that  Riesser  was  one  of  the  "  strong  supporters  and 
enthusiastic  members  of  this  society."  The  authority 
for  this  statement  is  not  given.  From  some  of 
Riesser's  utterances  quite  the  contrary  might  be  in- 
ferred; cf.  M.  Isler,  Gabriel  Riesser's  Leben,  vol.  i, 
PP-  357-60  (Riesser's  Letters  to  Stern;  Leipzig,  1867)  ; 
cf.  also  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  158,  note  i. 

^  Cf.  Rabinowitz,  "  Zachariah  Frankel,"  p.  loi ; 
Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  184. 

'*'  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.  196 ;  cf.  Einhorn's  Predigten, 
pp.  314-31  (ed.  Kohler,  New  York,  1881).  His 
position  on  this  question  is  clearly  and  forcibly  stated 
in  two  sermons,  one  delivered  in  Pesth,  in  1852, 
entitled  Was  hat  Israel  durch  die  Zerstoriing 
gewonnen?  and  the  other  delivered  in  Baltimore,  in 
1859,  entitled  Der  Gebtirtstag  des  Messias. 

^'  Bernfeld,  loc.  cit.,  p.   197. 

"^  Cf.  ib.  pp.  190-5 ;  Ritter,  loc.  cit.,  pt.  3,  pp.  190-5 ; 
Schreiber,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  220-2. 

"*  See  "  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  s.  v.  Confer- 
ences. 


pp.  263-275]  NOTES  331 

^  We  may  mention  in  connection  with  this  the 
resolution  adopted  at  the  convention  of  the  Union  of 
Hebrew  Orthodox  Congregations,  held  in  New  York, 
in  1898,  which  reads  as  follows :  "  The  restoration  to 
Zion  is  the  legitimate  aspiration  of  scattered  Israel, 
in  no  way  conflicting  with  our  loyalty  to  the  land 
in  which  we  dwell  or  may  dwell  at  any  time."  Cf. 
"  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,"  vol.  iv,  p.  217. 

"^  Slutzki,  Shibath  Zion,  pt.  2,  p.  45  (Warsaw,  1892). 

"/&.  p.  48. 

"Kalischer  succeeded  in  interesting  the  famous 
socialist  Moses  Hess  (1812-75)  i"  his  plan.  Hess 
then  wrote  his  work,  Rom  und  Jerusalem,  die  letzte 
Nationalitdtsfrage  (Leipzig,  1862;  2d  edition,  with 
preface  by  Dr.  Bodenheimer,  Leipzig,  1899).  In 
this  book,  Hess  endeavors  to  establish  the  fact  that 
the  Jewish  nationality  cannot  be  destroyed.  He  even 
goes  so  far  as  to  declare,  that  if  emancipation  were 
incompatible  with  Jewish  nationality,  the  Jews  should 
give  up  their  claims  to  emancipation.  He  saw  in 
the  Jewish  colonization  of  Palestine  the  only  solu- 
tion of  the  Jewish  problem;  cf.  Zlocisti's  Introduc- 
tion to  his  edition  of  Hess'  JUdische  Schriften 
(Berlin,   1905). 

^"  Cf.  Hess,  Rom  und  Jerusalem,  ed.  Bodenheimer, 
Introduction,  p.  xv. 

*°  Rabbi  Jonathan  Eliashberg,  in  Slutzki's  Shibath 
Zion,  pt.  I,  p.  30. 

"  Cf.  Kethuboth  1 12",  Yerush.  Shekalim  iii,  3,  end ; 
Maimonides,  Yad  Hahazakah,  Hilchoth  Melachim, 
v,  10-12. 

^^  Rabbi  B.  B.  Demont,  in  Slutzki's  Shibath  Zion, 
pt.  I,  p.  41,  and  Rabbi  Z.  Barit,  ib.  p.  51. 


332  NOTES  [pp.  275-2S9 


"Rabbi   Mordecai    EHashberg,  Shehil  Hazahah,  p. 

50  et  seq.    (Warsaw,   1897). 

^*  Luah  Ahiasaf,  vol.  vi  (1898),  p.  166. 

^"See  Giidemann,  Das  Judenthum,  pp.  93-105 
(Vienna,  1902),  where  the  universalistic  elements  of 
the  Messianic  idea  are  emphasized,  and  the  belief  in 
the  coming  of  a  personal  Messiah  considered  as  the 
fancy  of  homilists.  The  proof  brought  there  from 
the  services  for  Rosh  ha-Shanah  (see  Appendix,  pp. 
289-90)  cannot  be  gainsaid,  still,  even  there,  the  hope 
of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  son  of  David  finds  ex- 
pression ;  cf.  Joseph,  Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life,  pp. 
^^7-7Z  (London,  1903),  where  both  views  are  given 
and  discussed;  Leo  Back,  Das  Wesen  des  Juden- 
thums,  pp.   142-6  (Berlin,  1905). 

APPENDIX 

*  Berachoth  28^  Megillah  if. 

''See  Elbogen,  Geschichte  des  Achtaehngehetes,  p. 

51  (Breslau,  1903)  ;  cf.,  however,  Mannheimer,  Das 
Gcbetbuch  und  der  Religionsuntcrricht,  pp.  32-7 
(Darmstadt,  1881). 

"  nvhy    l^np  ;  Megillah  I7^ 

*  Cf.  Is.  27 :  13 ;  Zech.  9 :  14. 
"Is.  11:  12. 

VZ?.  43:5;  49:  12;  Zech.  8:7. 
'Is.  1:26. 

*  Missing  in  Palestinian  version ;  cf.  "  Jewish  Quar- 
terly Review,"  vol.  x,  pp.  654-9;  Dalman,  Messia- 
msche  Texte,  p.  20  (Leipzig,  1898)  ;  cf.  Psalm  of 
Ben  Sira  (Hebrew,  ch.  51). 

'Megillah    i8%   Pesahim    II7^ 


pp.  290-299]  NOTES  333 


"  The  translation  is  from   Singer's  edition  of  the  - 
prayer-book. 

"Also   on  week   days,   according  to   Siddur   Rah 
Amram,  p.  10^  (Warsaw,  1865). 

"Cf.  a  study  on  the  Kaddish,  by  I.  Schwab,  in  the^ 
"  Year  Book  of  the  Central  Conference  of  American 
Rabbis,"  vol.  xv,  pp.  205-22,  who  considers  the  Kad- 
dish as  a  characteristic  Messianic  prayer. 
"Omitted  in   Sefardic  ritual. 

"  The  reference  is  to  Elijah,  who  is  identified  in 
the  Talmudic  Haggadah  with  Phineas,  son  of  Eliezer, 
the    priest;    cf.    Friedmann,    Introduction    to    Seder 
Eliyahu,  pp.  8-9  (Vienna,  1902). 
"  Pesahim  13",  '  Eruhin  43". 

"  See   Hamanhig,   Hilchoth   Shabbath,  §  71,  P-  35'' 
(ed.    Goldberg,    Berlin,    1855)  ;    cf.    Friedmann,    loc. 
cit.  p.  23. 
"  Rosh  Hashanah  ii%  according  to  Rabbi  Joshua. 
^^Cf.    A.    A.    Green,    "Revised    Hagada,"    p.    20 
(London,  1897). 
^^  Pesahim  116";  cf.  Green,  loc.  cit.,  p.  55,  "•  i- 
^The    same    sentence    is    also    recited    in    some 
communities  at  the  conclusion  of  the  services  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement. 

^  Cf.  Jer.  23  :  6 ;  see  also  33 :  16,  where  this  name 
is  applied  to  Jerusalem. 
^^Sanhedrin  99'. 
".y.  V.  I  Pathros. 

'^Rosh  Hashanah  ii%  according  to  Rabbi  Eliezer. 
^  s.  V.  Weye'ethayu. 

^Cf.  Siddur  Rab  Amram,  p.  I3^  where  the  descrip- 
tion of  this  feast  is  given  in  still  greater  detail.  This 
section  is  the  only  place  in  the  whole  range  of  the 


334  NOTES  [pp.  299-300 


Jewish  liturgy  where  the  material  elements  of  the 
Messianic  hope  are  elaborated.  A  reference  to  the 
pre-existence  and  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah 
is  found  in  one  of  the  Piyyutim  recited  in  some  con- 
gregations during  the  Musaf  Kedushah  of  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  s.  v.  Az  iii;  cf,  Wiinsche,  Die  Leiden 
des  Messiah,  pp.  106-7;  Dalman,  Der  leidende  und 
sterhende  Messias,  etc.,  pp.  46-50;  Zunz,  Literatur- 
geschichte  der  synagogalen  Poesie,  pp.  56,  604. 

^''Rosh  Hodesh,  s.  v.  Emunathecha. 

^'Abadah  for  Parashah  Wayera,  s.  v.  Shaananah. 

"'First  Sabbath  after  Passover,  s.  v.  Shebuyyah.. . 

^  E.  g.  third  Sabbath  after  Passover,  s.  v.  Omcz; 
fourth  Sabbath  after  Passover,  s.  v.  Asihah  ct  al. 
As  an  example  of  this  kind  of  Piyyutim,  I  present 
here  a  free  translation  of  the  Piyyut  s.  v.  Scgulathi, 
recited  on  the  fourth  Sabbath  after  Passover: 

"  My  Treasure  1  I  gave  thee  birth,  covered  thy 
nakedness,  and  opened  to  thee  the  portals  of  My 
mansion.  Here  in  the  vale  of  Lebanon  did  I  find 
thee  a  resting  place;  prepared  for  thee  clusters  of 
grapes ;  confounded  thy  enemies  and  destroyed  them, 
O  My  Treasure ! 

"  My  Beloved !  Forlorn  was  I  and  forsaken,  as 
a  woman  divorced.  Fainting  and  enfeebled,  I  sank 
beneath  the  hand  of  the  oppressor.  Hasten  the 
period  of  my  redemption.  Let  me  again  be  called 
'  the  sought  one,*  and  let  my  enemies  behold  and  be 
covered  with  shame,  O  my  Beloved! 

"My  Treasure!  I  beheld  thee  enslaved,  in  the 
grief  of  thy  youth.  Rent  were  thy  garments,  thy 
hair    dishevelled.      Golden   bells    around    thy    locks. 


pp.  300-301]  NOTES  335 


Thy  despair  wrought  My  pity  and  I  enfolded  thee  in 
My  love  and  spread  My  mantle  over  thee,  O  My 
Treasure ! 

"  My  Beloved !  I  was  entrapped  in  the  net ; 
caught  in  the  snare  of  the  enemy ;  a  captive  in 
Babylon  and  an  outcast  in  Persia;  despoiled  by  the 
hands  of  Greece,  forsaken  in  Rome.  Make  me  as 
a  seal,  fastened  as  of  yore,  and  let  the  daughters  of 
Judah  rejoice,  O  my  Beloved! 

"  My  Treasure !  I  love  thee  and  thou  shalt  be  held 
in  My  memory.  In  thy  youth  I  pitied  thee,  I  also 
behold  thy  fear  now.  I  shall  yet  beautify  thy  coun- 
tenance and  make  thy  light  to  shine  forth.  Thy 
God  is  coming  to  thee,  He  will  bind  up  thy  wounds. 
Zion,  loosen  thy  shackles.  Arise,  give  light,  for  thy 
light  has  come,  O  My  Treasure ! 

"My  Beloved!  I  have  been  devoured  by  the  teeth 
of  bears  and  lions.  My  sanctuary  has  been  made  a 
lair  of  wild  beasts,  Moab  and  Amalek,  Kedar  and 
Ncbayoth.  Grant  Thou  a  year  of  redemption  for  the 
captured  sheep  and  gather  us  near  to  Thy  service, 
O   my  Beloved ! 

"  My  Treasure !  I  led  thee  into  captivity  and  saw 
thee  bowed  beneath  the  chains  of  thy  enemy,  scat- 
tered in  the  lands  of  darkness  and  My  sanctuary  in 
ashes.  But  thou  shalt  yet  return  to  its  holy  of 
holies,  for  the  Lord  has  chosen  Jacob  to  be  His 
own,  O  My  Treasure!" 

^^  For  further  reference,  I  would  direct  the  reader 
to  the  studies  of  Zunz  on  these  subjects,  with  the 
guide  of  the  valuable  key  to  Zunz's  Litcraturge- 
schichte  der  synagogalcn  Pocsie  prepared  by  Gerst- 
ner   (Berlin,   1889). 


INDEXES 


INDEX  TO  SCRIPTURAL  REFERENCES 


Exodus 

15:  18 
Dhuteronomy 

30:3 

I  Samuel 

10  :  27 
24:7 

II  Samuel 
7  :  12-18 

I  Kings 
2:4 

17  :  17-24 

II  Kings 
19:21 

Isaiah 

I  :  26 
2:2-4 
7:6 
7:14 
9:5 
11 

11  :  1-9 

II  :10 
11  :  12 
28  :  12 
26  :  14 
26:  19 
27:  13 
29:  18 
30:26 
35:5 
37:22 
40:  1 
42  : 1-7 
43:5 
45:1 


PAGE 

291 

129,  320 

25 
25 

26 

26 
314 

310 

288,  332 

35-6 

31 

33 

33,    317 

33-5 

34 

35 

288,   332 

310 

60 

60 

332 

306 

306 

306 

310 

45 

46 

288,  332 

45 


Isaiah  (continued) 

PAGE 

45:  4 

45 

45:6 

47 

47:1 

810 

49  :  5-8 

46 

49:12 

288,   332 

52:7 

806 

53:4 

139,    321 

54  :  11,  12 

46 

56:7 

47 

60:15 

46 

60:21 

47 

64  :  9-10 

44 

66  :  23 

47 

Jeremiah 

3:15 

42 

3:  19 

309 

23:5 

307 

23:6 

333 

30:3 

42 

30:9 

25,  305 

30  :  22,  25 

42 

31:27 

41 

83:9 

41 

33:15 

807 

33:16 

833 

33  :  25,  26 

41-2 

46:11 

310 

EZEKIEL 

20  :  6,  15 

309 

36:  22 

306 

87 

808 

37:  11-14 

42 

87  :  24,  25 

25,  805 

88,39 

95,  314 

340 

INDEXES 

HOSEA 

PAGE 

Zechariah  {continued) 

page 

2:2 

29 

9:14 

332 

2:20 

30 

14  :  9 

291 

3:5 

25,  29,  305 

Malachi 

6:2 

308 

1  :11 

49 

Joel 

3:  22 

55 

3:4-5 

42 

3  :  23,  24 

55 

,  307 

4  :  15,  16 

306 

Amos 

Psalms 

9:11,  14-15 

29 

16:  10 

59 

MiCAH 

22  :  28-32 

307 

4:1-4 

35-6 

65  :  3,  6 

307 

7:6 

314 

72:5 

319 

Nahum 

72  :  7-11,  17 

26 

2:1 

39 

86:9 

307 

Zephaniah 

87 

307 

1:15 

40 

88:11-13 

308 

2:10 

41 

119  :  164 

120 

,319 

3:7 

41 

146: 10 

291 

3:9 

40 

Job 

3  :  12,  13 

41 

8:7 

23 

3:15 

41 

14:  12 

308 

IlAGGAI 

Song  of  Songs 

1:2 

49 

2:9 

221 

,328 

2  :  6,  7,  21,  22 

307 

Lamentations 

2  :  23 

48 

2:13 

310 

Zechariah 

3:1 

Ecclesiastes 

41 

1  :  14-17 

48 

7:14 

308 

2:  15 

49 

Daniel 

3:8 

307 

8:9 

809 

6:12 

307 

11 :  16,  45 

309 

8:3 

48,  307 

12:1 

313 

8:7 

288,  332 

12  :  2,  3 

61 

8  :  20-23 

49 

12:3 

323 

9:1 

317 

12 ;  7, 10 

313 

INDEX  TO  TALMUDIC  REFERENCES 


MISHNAH 

PAGE 

Shekalim   II,  5  315 

SOTAH,  end  315 

Sanhedrin  X,  1  101,  31S 

'Eduyoth  II,  10  95,  314 

'Edutoth  VIII,  7  96,  315 

Aboth  IV,  22  101,  318 

JERUSALEM  TALMUD 
Berachoth 

II,  4  96,  316,  317 

KiLAYIM 

IX,  3  102,  318 

SlIABBATH 

I,  3  315 
Shekalim 

III,  3  275,  315,  331 
Sdkkah 

V,  2  95,  315 
Ta'anith 

II,  1  97,  317 

IV,  5  90,  313 

SOTAH 

IX,  end  92,  313 

BABYLONIAN  TALMUD 

Berachoth 

15b  101,  318 

28b      92,  284,  313,  332 
34"      98,  102,  317,  318 

Shabbath 

30b  103,  318 

88b  318 

118a  94,  314 

118b  106,  318 


'Erdbin  page 
43b  98,  294,  316,  317,  333 

Pesahim 

13a  294,  316,  333 

54a  316 

54b  106,  318 

56a  106,  318 

116b  296,  333 

117b  288-9,  332 

118b  98,  317 

YOMA 

5b  100,  317 

69b  215,  327 

86a  106,  318 

SUKKAH 

52a  95^  315 

ROSH  Hashanah 

lla      106,  295,  319,  333 

Megillah 

17b  284,  288,  332 

18a  288-9,  332 

Hagigah 

12b  318 

14a  97,  317 

15a,  b  312 

Yebamoth 

62a     184,  222,  325,  328 

63b  222,  328 

Kethdboth 

Ilia  102,  106,  318 

111b  101,  103,  318 

112a  275,  331 
112b     94,  184,  314,  325 

Nedarim 

39b  316 


342 

INDEXES 

GiTTIN 

page 

Sanhedrin 

{continued)  page 

68* 

828 

93a 

152,  322 

SOTAH 

97a 

94 

,95, 

104,  lOG,  184 

38« 

827 

814, 

316,  318,  325 

49" 

94,  814 

97b 

105, 

111,  318,  319 

KiDDDSHIN 

OS" 

94,  97,  314,  317 

39«> 

101,  318 

98b 

95, 

805,  314,  316 

40* 

23,  305 

99a 

98, 

102,  312,  317 

71a 

G6,  815 

818,  319 

Baba  Kama 

99b 

90,  313 

82* 

307 

110b 

98,  317 

Baba  Mbzia 

Ilia 

98,  317 

3a 

96,  315 

'Abodah 

Zarah 

Baba  Bathra 

8b 

98,  99,  117 

3b 

244,  829 

5" 

222,  325,  328 

74b 

102,  818 

9b 

105,  318 

76« 

100,  317 

20b 

315 

Sanhedrin 

Menahoth 

38b                 22, 

97,  305,  817 

45a 

96,  815 

67b 

812 

NiDDAH 

eob 

88,  813 

13b 

222,  828 

92» 

101,  318 

61b 

101,  318 

INDEX  TO  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS 


Abarbanel.  Isaac,  186-90 

Abbahu,  97 

Abraham   Abulafla,   170,   172 

Abraham  b.  Hiyya,  134 

Adam,  22,  305 

Adam  Kadmon,  220 

Addir  Hu,  296 

Ages  of  Man,  The,  22 

Alcdamuih,  298 

Akiba,  90,  97,  98,  189 

Albo,   Joseph,   152,   182,   187, 

322 
'Alcnu,  291 
Alliance  Israelite  UnirerseUe, 

268 
'Amidah,  287,  289,  291 
Amos,  29 
Anan,  125,  126 
Anti-Semitism,  269-70 
Apocryphal   and   Apocalyptic 

Boolcs,  62,  66  ct  seq.,  308 
Armilus,  124,  169,  314,  320 
Asher  Lammlein,  189-90, 

325-6 
Ashl,  110 
'AtUk  Yomin,  220 
Azariah  de  Rossi,  165 

Bar-Cochba,  89,  313 
Baruch,   The   Apocalypse   of, 

86-8 
Baruch  Gad,  217 
Basle  Congress,  276 
Beer  of   Miesricz,   237 
Ben   Sira,   63,   309 
Bcrnay:^,  Isaac,  252,  253 
Bressler,  M.  J.,  249 


Caro,  Joseph,  195 
Cassel,  David,  262 
Circvtmcision,   Celebration   of 

the,  293 
Cohn,  Albert,  267 
Colonization     in     Palestine, 

268,  272-5,  331 
Cromwell,  213 
Cyrus,  God's  anointed,  45 

Daniel,  60,  67,  105 

David,   type  of  the   Messiah, 

25 
David  Alruy,   141-3 
David   Reubeni,    192-9 
Day    of    Judgment,    87,    125, 

153,   312,   314 
Day  of  the  Lord,   29,  40 
Deutsch,  Emanuel,  80-1 
Dogmas,   7-9,    54,    82-4,   322 
Donmiih,  227 
Driver,    S.   R.,   82,   46 

Eger,   Akiba,   246 

Kibeschtitz,  229 

Einhorn,  David,  261,  830 

Eliashberg,    274 

Eliezer  Kontras,   133 

Elijah,  55,  76,  77,  93,  96, 
104,  134,  137,  138,  149, 
168,  231,  232,  294,  309, 
815,  825,  833;  cup  of, 
295. 

Elijah   of  Wilna,   240 

Emancipation  248,  246-8, 
264,   265 

Emden,  229 


344 


INDEXES 


Emunoth   wc-Dr'otJr,    12S 
Enoch,    The    Apocalypse    of, 

68,   72 
Ezekiel,  42,   183,   306 
Ezra,  53,  58,  275,  307 
Ezra,  The  Apocalypse  of,  86 

Fall  of  man,    the,   22 
Feast  of  the  Righteous,  102, 

283,   333 
Felgenhauer,    212 
Fifth     Monarchy    Men,     208, 

212 
Frank,     the     false     Messiah, 

231-6 
Frankel,   Saeckol,    249 
Frankel,    Zachariah,    253    et 

seq.,  257,  202 
Friedlander,    David,    246,  247 

Gamaliel,    89.    103,    284,   313 
Gederah,    272 
Gehenna,  60,  125,  134 
Geiger,    Abraham,    250,    257, 

262 
Gentiles  in  Messianic  Times, 

43,    73,    98-9,    113,    134 
Geonim,  116  et  seq.,  125 
Geronimo  de   Santa   Fe,    183 
Ginzberg,    Asher,    276 
Gog    and    Magog,    Wars    of, 

95,    105,    149,    211 
"  Good    Tidings    for    Israel," 

212 
Guf,  222,  325 
Guttmacher,    Elijah,    265 

HaMalah,  294 
Haftarah,  294 
Haggai,  48,   49 
Hal  Gaon,   134 


TTnlachah      and      Ilaggadah, 

80-3 
rianina,  105 

llasdai  Crescas,   151.   185 
riasdai  Halovi.   150 
Hasidim,  227,   237 
riayyim  b.   Galipapa,   182 
Hayyim   Malach,    227 
Hayyun,   Nehemiah,   228 
Hebrew   in    the   Prayer-Book, 

247,  257,  262 
riephzi-bah,    136 
Herzl,    Theodor,    277 
Hess,   Moses,   331 
Hezekiah,    31,    34,    37,   92 
Hillel,   91 

Hillel    (Amora),   312 
Hirsch,    S.   R.,    251-2 
Holdheim.    S.,    249,    258.    261 
Holmes,    Nathaniel,    209 
Hosea,  29,  30 
Ilosha'anoih,  Hosha'ana 

Rahha,  300 

'Ikkarim    187,   325 
Immanuel,    the   child,    32 
Ineffable     Name,     The,     215, 

327-8 
Isaac   Prime,    221 
Isaiah,    30-6,    43-7,    60,    283, 

306 
Isavites   or   Ispahanites.    122 
Israel  Baal  Shora,  237,  240 
Israel's   sufferings   accounted 

for,  130,  139 

.labne,    89,    92 
Jacob  Querido,   226 
Jehudah    Halevi,    137-41 
Jeremiah,    41,    76,    183 
Jerusalem,    restored,    46,    64, 
69,  100,  288.  307 


INDEXES 


345 


Jesus,  72  et  seq.,  76,  129, 
167,  183,  208,  212,  213, 
232,    328 

Joel,    42 

Jofife,   Mordecai,   274 

Johanan    (Amora),  94 

Johanan  b.  Zakkai,  85,  80, 
92 

John  the  Baptist,   75,   76 

Jose  the  Galilean,   97 

Joseph    (Amora),    312 

Joseph   ha-Kohen,    184,    199 

Joseph  Escapa,   210 

Joshua  b.  Levi,   97 

Josiah,   38 

Judah    (Tanna),    95 

Judah   Hasid,   227 

Judah  Judghan,   127 

Judges,   24 

Julian  the  Apostate,   107 

Julian  of  Toledo,   320 

Kahbalah,  159  et  seq. 
Kaddish,   292,   333 
Kalischer,    Hirsch,    205,    260 
Karaism,    126,    128 
Kedushah,   289,    290,   334 
Kelippoth,  219 
Kinnotli,  301 
Koferim,  223 
Kuzari,  139 

Law,    The,    54,    55,    82,    85, 

155  ;  a  new,  100 
Lei  Shimmurim,   295 
Levi.    Aaron,    210 
Leviathan,    102,   299 
Lobele    Prossnitz,    228 
Lurya,   Isaac,   200 
Luther,    204,    205 
Luzzatto,      Moses      Hayyim. 

230-1 


Maccabees,   64,   71 
Magfjid,  ha-,  268 
Maimonides,     8,     103,      13:^. 

143-51,    157,    158,    187 
Malachi,   49,   54,    183,   307 
Malka  Kadisha,  220 
Malkuyyoth,  297 
Manasseh  b.  Israel,  207-13 
Mantin,   Jacob,   197 
Marranos,      the,      191,      193, 

230 
Mazzoth,  295,  326 
Mendelssohn,   Moses,   7,   236, 

243,    250 
Messiah,    the   person   of   the, 
96,    107,   136-7 ;   nature  of 
the,  146,   165,  186;  names 
of  the,   72,  99,   316 
Messiah,    son   of  Joseph,   95, 
124,    131,    135,    137,    168, 
180,    200,    211,    225,    314, 
319 
Messianic  Reign,  duration  of 

the,    87,   313,    319 
Messianic  Woes,   94,   176 
Metatron,    123,    136,    220 
Micah,   35 

Michael  Cardoso,   225 
Mikiveh  Israel,  211 
Mikweh  Israel    (school),  268 
Mishneh  Torah,   148,  159 
Mission   of   Israel,    the,    140, 

254,  255 
Mohammedanism,  115  ef  seq. 
Mohilever,    Samuel,    274 
Mordecai  of  Eisenstadt,   226 
Moses,  24 

Moses  Botarel,  184 
Moses  of  Crete,  110 
Moses  de   Leon,   173 


346 


INDEXES 


Moses  b.    Nahman,    164-8 
Musaf,  291 
Mutazilists,    127 
Mysticism,  see  Kabbalati 

Nalium,  39 

Nathan   Ghazati,    217,   224 

Nationalism,    Jewish,    251    ct 

seq.,  273  et  seq.,  331 
Natronai   Gaon,    120 
Nissim  b.  Abraham,   171 
Nissim  b.   Reuben,   185 
Nizozoth,  219 
Nordau,   Max,   277 

Obayah     Abu-Isa     b.     Ishalc, 

120,    319 
'Olam   ha-Tikkun,  219 
Omeyyads,    121,    124 

rablo  Christiani,   164 

I'alestlne,  Colonization  of, 
268,    272-5,    331 

Parzufim,  228 

Persian   Influence,    56 

Personal  Messiah,  27,  35, 
40,  43,  55,  03,  64-5,  72, 
74,  134,  276,  291,  309, 
332 

Petah   Tilcwah,  268 

Philo,  74 

riyyutim,  284,  286  et  seq. 

Prayer-Book,    8,    283    et   seq. 

"  Precious   Stone,    The,"   213 

Promised  End,  The,  132 

Psalms,  The,  49;  of  Solo- 
mon, 72 

Pseudo-Messiahs,  110,  118, 
120,  127,  141,  162,  170, 
171,  184,  189,  192  et  seq., 
214,   225,   226,    228,   231 

Puritans,  209 


Rabbinical    Conferences,    260 
Rabbinism,      opposition      to, 
by     Arabian     Jews,      117, 
118;     by     Karaites,     120; 
by    Pseudo-Messiahs,     119, 
162,    163,    220,    222,    232, 
233  ;  by  modern  reformers, 
250 
Rahaman,  ha-,  293 
Rappel  des  Juifs,  209 
Reform     in     Worship,     245, 

248-52 
Remnant,    in   Isaiah,    32 ;    In 

Ze-phanlah,    41 
Redemption,  the  date  of  the, 
08,     103,     104,     133,     137, 
138,    150,    174,    186,    188, 
195,    211,    320,    321,    323, 
324,  326 
Resurrection,    42,    57-61,    69, 
74,    87,     88,     101,     129-32, 
140,    144,   148,   150-3,   168, 
180,    188,    211,    249,    203, 
286,    288,    308,    818,    327 
Riesser,   Gabriel,   259,   330 
Rome,     97,     123,     130,     177, 
189,    195,    196,    197,    199, 
205 
Rothschild,     Anselm     Mayer, 
266 

Saadia  Gaon,   128-32 
Sabbatal  Zebl,  207,  214-24 
Sabbatians,    Messianic    Theo- 
ry  of   the,    219   et  seq. 
Sachs,  Michael,  262 
Sacrifices    in    Messianic 

Times,    100,   289 
Sadducees,  288 
Salomon,    Gotthold,    256 
Samael,   the   Satan,   96 


INDEXES 


347 


Sambatlon,  217 

Samuel   (Amora),  98 

Samuel  Abulafla,  185 

Saul,  25 

Schechter,    S.,   7,   143,    165 

Scribes,  53-9 

Sects,   61,   6i,    122,   227,    328 

Beder  Service,   295 

Befiroth,  170,  220 

Belihotn,  800 

Serene  of  Syria,   118 

"  Servant  of  the  Lord,  The," 

45,   139,  306-7 
Shammai,  91 
Bhechinah,   228,   299 
Bhema',  291 

Bhemoneh  'Esreh,  284,  287-9 
Shiites,   127 
Bhor  ha-Bar,  102,  299 
Bhulhan  Aruch,  174,  195 
Billuk,  296 
Simeon    b.    Johal,    Mysteries 

of,    122;    Prayer   of,    169; 

author  of  Zohar,   173,  823 
Simon  the  Just,  61 
Simon   Maccabee,   810 
Birajy  144  et  seq. 
Solomon  b.   Adereth,   171 
Solomon  Ayllon,  228 
Solomon  Molcho,  194-9 


Suffering:    Messiah,    The,    78, 

179,  311,  334 
Sybilline  Boolis,  The,  70,  310 

Tannaim,  91 
TefiUah,  287 
Ten    Tribes,    The,    98,    210, 

224 
Tikkun  Hazoth,   801 
Tobit,  Book  of,  63 
Twelve        Patriarchs,        The 

Apocalypse  of  the,  70 

Vital,   Hayyim,  200 

World  to  come,  The,  68,  184, 
152,   179,   219 

YesJiihah,  85 
Yozer,  295,  299 

Zechariah,  48-50 
Zemiroth,  294,   300 
Zephaniah,  40 
Zerubbabel,    48-9,    275 ;    The 

Apocalypse  of,  135 
Zionism,  Modern,  265  et  seq. 
Zohar,  The,  173-81,  208,  214. 
218,    224,    230,    234,    287, 
240,  823 
I  Ziilath,  297 
I  Zunz,  253,  329 


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